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Congressional Research Service
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RESEARCH INTO "PSI" PHENOMENA: CURRENT STATUS AND
TRENDS OF CONGRESSIONAL CONCERN
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Christopher H. Dodge
Specialist in Life Sciences
Science Policy Research Division
June 2, 1923
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ABSTRACT
The status of past and present research into psi phenomena, including
extrasensory perception (ESP) and psychokinesis (PK), is reviewed and summarized.
It is concluded that at present, the psi research community is minimally funded,
diffuse in nature, largely unstructured, and somewhat hesitant with regard to
research methodologies. Nonetheless, progress is being made slowly to better
understand the nature and potential of psi phenomena. Effective realization
of the potentials or pitfalls of psi will require an open, humanistic perspective
as well as the rigor and scientific discipline provided by conventional research
tradition.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is indebted to many individuals who kindly donated their cel-
lective knowledge on present trends in the field of psi research as well as
loaning materials from their own collections of literature on the subject.
Special thanks are extended to: John Alexander, Christopher Bied, Brenda Dunne,
William Gough, Patrice Keane, Edward Kelly, Morton Leeds, Jack McAllister,
Harold Puchoff, Theodore Rockwell, Gertrude Schneidler, Ian Stevenson, Russell
Targ, Larissa Vilenskaya, Rhea White, and Howard Zimmerman.
The author is
particularly indebted to Dr. Robert Jahn, Dean of the School of Engineering/
Applied Science, Princeton University. The report which follows is essentially
a summary of Dr. Jahn's recent comprehensive review of psi research with
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additions of information from other sources.
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1/ Jahn, Robert. The Persistent Paradox of Psychic Phenomena:
An
Engineering Perspective. Proceedings of the IEEE, v. 70, no. 2, 1982.
p. 136-170 ..
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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INTRODUCTION
Purpose.
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Congressional Concerns.
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Nomenclature and Definitions
2
History
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PRESENT STATUS OF PSI RESEARCH
Research Patterns in the United States
Funding for Psi Research.
Psi Research in Foreign Countries
THEORY.
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PUBLIC AND SCIENTIFIC PERCEPTIONS OF PSI RESEARCH
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Criticism of ?si Research
The Positive Side
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POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS FOR GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY
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CLOSING REMARKS
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APPENDIX A. A Brief List of Recommended Readings in Parapsychology
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APPENDIX B. Furt-er References on Psi from Jahn.
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The world of psychic phenomena might
be likened to a vast, fog-shrouded"
swamp, wherein are reported to dwell
a bewildering array of bizarre
phenomenological creatures, all foreign
to our normal perceptual and analytical
catalogs.
Robert Jahn, 1982
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INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE
It is the purpose of this summary report co review the status of research
into the broad field of psi phenomena (see definitions below). Current national
and international trends in research will be summarized and the future implica-
tions of such research will be speculated upon.
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CONGRESSIONAL CONCERNS
In December, 1979, the Congressional Clearinghouse on the Future, with
the assistance of the Congressional Research Service, sponsored a series of
Chautauquas for the Congress dealing with a variety of esoteric subjects, in-
cluding alternative approaches to medicine (acupuncture, faith healing, etc. )
and research into psi phenomena. The last of these Chautauquas was entitled,
"Mind Research and the Human Potential," and featured the following presenta-
tions by experts in the field:
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refsand the Human Potential (Jean Houston);
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Psy
"Discoveries Behind the Iron Curtain (Lynn Schroder and
ShelliOstrander);
3) . Remote Viewing (Harold Puchof!);
4) Implications of Mind Research (Edgar Mitchell).
These well-attended presentations elicited considerable interest on the
part of certain members, their staff, and the staffs of certain House and
Senate committees. Over the past three years congressional interest in the
subject has remained as the subject has received increasing attention by the
news media.
During 1982, congressional requests were received by the Congressional
Research Service to conduct a review of the status of research into osi pheno-
mena. As a part of the CRS response, this review focuses on the following
general topics:
1) nomenclature and definitions;
2) history;
3) status of current research in the United States and
abroad;
4) theory;
5) public and scientific perceptions: positive and negative;
6)
possible implications for government and society.
NOMENCLATURE AND DEFINITIONS
By far, the most commonly encountered serm in the study of extended sensory
awareness or psi research is "parapsychology." This serm originated from a cadre
of scholars with professions! backgrounds in classical psychology. This group
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has tended to
field with traditional psychological protocols and
vocabulary.and-Eo interpret, results in the context of classical psychological
tradition.
Recently, certain individuals in the field with backgrounds in scientific
disciplines other than psychology have expressed the need for a less contro-
versial, more universal term. For the purpose of this report the term, "psi"
is used to encompass research into mind-mind and mind-matter interrelationships
of an unexplained or currently unexplainable nature.
It is expedient to group categories of the more widely investigated psi
phenomena according to the general classification of Jahn in his recent review
article on psi research. 2!
TABLE 1. Major Categories of Psi Research
I.
Extrasensory Perception (ESP) = psi gamma
A. Telepathy
3. Clairvoyance
C. Precognition/Retrecognition
D. Animal ESP
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Psychekinesis (PK) = psi kappa
A. Physical systems
3. Biological systems
C. Psychic healing
III.
Survival After Death
A.
Reincarnation
B. Apparitions ( ghost phenomena)
C. Mediumship (communication with the departed)
D.
Out-of-Body Experiences (OBE)
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Jahn, Robert, op. cit.
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brief definition of some of the more commonly encountered terminology in
the broad field of psi is provided below:
3/ 4/ 51
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Animal ESP - Exhibition of psychic capabilities by animals . that
are sometimes similar to human manifestations.
Also includes such phenomena as homing and swarming.
Apparition - Abnormal appearance cr perception that cannot be re-
ferred to any natural objective cause but is distin-
quished from hallucination.
Clairvoyance - The ability to perceive objects or events beyond the
known capabilities of conventional or perceptual faculties.
Conscious - The zone or sector of personality that is aware of
ice functioning self.
Dowsing - The clairvoyant (or physical) ability to perceive water, .'
minerais, or other natural elements below ground beyond the
known capabilities of normal sensory or perceptual faculties.
May or may not invoive the use of a wand, rod, forked stick,
or other instrument held in the hands that points downward
when the douser is over the target being sought. Synonymous
with "divining." Related techniques permit acquisitioning
other types of information.
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Extrasenscry Perception (ESF) - A general term used to describe che
perceptual aspect of psi processes
(see "psi").
Ganzfeld screen - A family of procedures designed to produce mild,
psi conclusive alterations in consciousness vid
uniform visual c: auditory stimuli.
Ghost - The illusory perception of a past event or person by another
person.
Hallucination - A sensory illusion that appears to exteriorize an
internal creacion or experience.
3/ Leeds, M. and G. Murphy. The Paranormal and the Normal: A His-
torical, Philosophical, and Theoretical Perspective. Metuchen, N.S., The
Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1980. 239 D.
vo!s. 122. 5h
Shepard, L. A., ed. Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology,
New York, Avon Publishers, 1980. 1084 p.
5/ Woman, B. J., ed. Handbook of Parapsychology. New York, Van
Nostrand, 1977. 500 ?.
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Kirlian photography: - A photographic technique for converting the
non-electrical properties of an object into
electrical properties that can be recorded
on photographic film (syn. electrophotography).
: Various Kirlian photography devices are mar-
keted in the U.S. and Europe to record
biological fields around humans, animals,
and plant's. The significance of the. phenomenon
remains to be determined.
Medium - A person who is able to dissociste essily, and by a number
of expressive means (voice or writing) can allegedly "com-
municate" with other personalities in other planes of'
existence.
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Out-of-Body Experience (OBE) - A sensation of being conscious and' of
possessing an alternate, separate, and."
less dense body that is able to move
about with relative freedom. An experience,
either spontaneous or induced in which. one
center of consciousness seems to be in a
spatial location separate from that of one's
physical body.
Paranormal - Sensory phenomena or physical events not explainable by
present concepes of causality or physical laws.
.Parapsychology - The scientific study of psi or physical phenomena
by persons primarily :rained in the psychological
sciences (i.e. psi).
Poltergeist - Macroscopic PK usually in the presence of a young
person who is able to move physical objects by unknown
forces or means.
Precognition - The sensation of becoming aware of an event before
it occurs.
Psi - The abbreviation for all psychical or caranormal phenomena
( i.e. extended sensory awareness).
Psychokinesis (PK) - The movement of influence of matter or living
systems Sy psi means or mechanisms.
Reincarnation. - The concept that the human personality consists of
of physical body and a mind, spirit, or some non-
physical entisy that survives death of the physical
body. Later, it becomes associated wich a new
physical body developing a new personality that is,
to a certain extent, continuous with the first one.
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Retrocognition - The perception of past events in the present by psi
processes.
Telepathy - The passage or sharing of information between two per- .
sonalities by extrasensory processes.
Trance - A mencal state in which the actor or self is partly or
wholly submerged and unconscious (i.e., dissociation).
Unconscious - The aspect of personality below its conscious
and preconscious levels.
HISTORY
The study of paranormal behavior and osi phenomena is one of the oldest
endeavors. As far back as can be traced, humankind has pondered the super-
natural in one form or another. Cave drawings believed to be made as early
us 20, 000 BC reflect such a preoccupation. The religious rites of early
societies, both East and West, were heavily influenced by psi formal:sms.
The early civilizations of Egypt, Greece, and Rome deal: extensively in psi
phenomena.
Virtually every form of organised religion has been thoroughly permeated
with various forms of psychic insight. In Western civilization, the Bible is
an extensive catalog of psi phenomena.
The first maior, recorded scientific inquiry into psi phenomena occurred
near the turn of the 17th century by Si: Francis Bacon. generally regarded
as the originator of the scientific approach to research. He suggested that
"superstitions and the like" should not be excluded from serious study and
proposed deliberate investigations into telepathic dreams, psychic healing,
and the influence of imagination on the castiaz of dice.
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Despite che millenia of human concern with psi phenomena, orderly and
well-organized efforts to verify and understand such phenomena began only
a century ago with the establishment in London of the Society for Psychical
Research (SPR). Three years later, the counterpart organization in the
United States, the American Society for Psychical Research (ASPR) was
founded in Boston.
At the beginning of the 20th century, new perspectives on psi phenomena
were provided by the emergence of psychology and psychoanalysis as scholarly
disciplines. The matriarchs of this new scientific discipline are recognized
as Wilhelm Wunde and Sigmund Freud, the latter of whom was also a member :a
SPR. It was also early in the century that the first organized academic studico
of psi phenomena began to be conducted on a sporadic basis at institutions
such as Harvard and Stanford Universities!
The first pioneering undertaking of research into psi phenomena in acade-
mic institution took place in the late 1920s at Duke University. At that time,
J. B. Rhine and Louisa Rhine were brought in by Will : 25 McDougall to study the
claims to scientific value of the field known as "psychical research." In the
Rhine's laboratory, many of the basic concepts and protocols of modern experi-
mental psi research were formulated, and large amounts of research data were
systematically collected over a period of decades. In 1937, the Rhines
initiated the Journal of Parapsycholery, which remains a leading journal in
the field today. The Parapsychological Association, an International Prc-
fessional Society was formed in 1957, and in 1969, it was accepted as an af-
filiate of the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS).
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At present
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Fare eight major English language publications directly
addressing 'pat. test
These are complemented bv numerous foreign and less
formal magazines .and hundreds of monographs of varying quality and relevance.
Research is taking place in some 20 U.S. universities and colleges and in
at least as many institutions in Western Europe and Great Britain. Research
in other foreign countries will be reviewed subsequently.
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6/ Jahn, Robert, op. cit.
7/ Princeton University. Princecen Engineering Anomalities Research
Programs statement, 1981. 58 p.
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PRESENT STATUS OF PSI RESEARCH
RESEARCH PATTERNS IN THE UNITED STATES
Contemporary research into psi research can be categorizediaccording :o
cable 1 in Ene Introduction. In the United States the research is characterized
as being somewhat diffuse and loosely structured, encompassing, i in the main,
a variety of specific problems in ESP and PR. 8/
The most sustained attention to the field over time has been accorded by
professionals in psychology. This group of scholars has tended to approach
the field with traditional psychological protocols and vocabulary. Similarly,
Che results of experimentation are interpreted in the context of clinical,
cognitive psychology, and/or psychophysiology.
The most extensive class of current psi research has attempted to corre-
late psi performance with personality variables. Such variables of" dae, sen,
creativity, openess, anxiety, extroversion, neuroticism; motivation, bood
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factors, actitudes, and intelligence have been examined at length as indices
of the ability 'te perform: ESP tasks.
Some consistent. but weak, producsive
relationships have been established. Other studies have searched for connec-
Sions between psi performance and cognitive factors such as imagery processes,
dream recall, hearing and response strategies, short-term memory, and biofeed-
back. More active approaches to current research depart from the assumption that
the usual awake/aware stase is not amenable to the occurence of psi because of
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competition With sensery and motor processes. Thus, a variety of altered
states
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of consciousness are being explored to enhance psi performance. These
new research. stracegies seem to minimize sensorimotor interference vin approaches
such as sleep, medication, and progressive relaxation. More mechanics! sensory
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inhibition strategies have been employed such as hypnosis, sensory isolation,
and the use of the Ganzfeld techniques (see definitions in the Intreduction).
The tools available for the conduct of contemporary psi research are con-
stantly being ref.ned and improved upon. The statistical techniques. of :pas
research are highly developed. To the extent permitted by persistent ?scarcity
of funding, psi researchers have rapidly incorporated the latest techsiblogies.
into their investigations, including laboratory minicard micro-computers and
various classes of sophisticated laboratory instruments. Currently, new efforts
are underway to identify physiological correlates of psychic. states. Such
instruments as .he conventional electroencephalograph (EEG), electrocardiogra
(EKG), galvanic skin response (GSR), and slethysmographic instruments are
used to monitor reurelogical, cardisvassols-, and neuromuscular correlases
of psi conditions
Kirlian photography has been employed in studies cf ?!
and faith healing. The corona discharge effect has vet to be satisfactorily
explained in terms of psi Shencmina. Tre persistent difficulty of obtaining
fully consissens : eolications in every attempt oc study positive results has
led to studies of the influence of the experimentor as a possible inhibitory
influence on subjects under investigation.
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Until :ccently, the involvement of physicists in psi research has been
less extensive, although no less intensive and controversial. In the past
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rtfof the physics community has focused on PR research; identi-
fication and correlacion of very low-level physical effects; and the applica-
tion of theoretical physics to modeling psi phenomena. Specific contribucions
of physics to psi research include the development and application of a
variety of electronic random event generators designed to identify and cor-
relate PK abilities in human subjects. Magnetometers, torsion pendula,
lasers, interferometers, and piezoelectric strain guages have found similar
applications. On a more theoretical level, quantum mechanics, statistical
thermodynamics, electromagnetic thecry, and other formalisms have been-
applied coward a better understanding of the existence and nature of psi
phenomena.
The involvement cf engineers in ssi research is a relatively recent
event. Only a few engineering laboratories address the field in a substan-
cial and deliberate manner, although the future will likely bring greater
involvement by the engineering community. Thus far, that involvement has
primarily taken the form of applied physics and information processing rather
than the sore testsological applications.
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Seabisticians and logicians have also played a role in psi research.
Their mais concere has been the proper evaluation and interpretation of re-
search data. In the limited experiments displaying cuanticacive replicability
of macroscopic effects, inferences and hypotheses about psi phenomena have
been based on statistical evidence and on field observations of varying
quality. Anecdotal evidence remains vulnerable to alternative interpretation,
impressionistic bias, and argument, particularly in the face of entrenched
skepticism of much of the scientific establishment. It should also be recce-
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nized chat, in general, statistical evidence, by its nature, is inconsistent.
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chet-disciplines have played roles in the evolution of in-
vesti
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bena and continue to contribute to the field. The
intersection of psi with anthropology, theology, and history encompasses many
perspectives ranging from aesthetic to analytical and from dogmatic to scholarly.
The relevance of osi phenomena to the study of medicine continues to be a matter
of intense debate relative to holistic health strategies and psychic or faith
hesling. Practical application of psi is occasionally sought by biclogists,
chemists, geologists, and archeologists. The application of psi te criminology
and law enforcement is less rigorous than academic undertakings, but nonetheless
contributes anecdo:al evidence to the svera !! psi data base. Finally, the
general topic of osi continues to stimulate che ares and humanities.
Thus far, research into psi phenomena has yielded a highly varied assort-
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ment of observations that appear to be cuestionable in terms of the sciences,
at their present level of development and evolution. These observations display
cer: sin phenomeno: caical and psychologics: features chat hold ferch promise for
potencial and substantial applications. Curmerely, experimental studies : PK
and ES? are receiving primary attention in the psi community because of the
relatively consistent informal replication of the phenomena, though replicability
associated with contemporary research designs in these areas remains problematic.
Recently, this trend appears to be true of psychokinetic meral bending (PKMB)
under relatively informal condicions (metal-bending parties). Efforts will
be under way in 1983 in various parts of the United Sesces to approach PR
in a more disciplined and scientific manner.
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FUNDING FORELSE RESEARCH"
Because
methodological, public image and other difficulties inherent
in psi research, the field continues to receive little support from the Federal
sector. Total funding for psi research in the United States probably does
not greatly exceed $500, 000 per annum, and most funding originates from private
sources and foundations. During the period 1973-1978, the most recent years
for which reliable data are available, the 13 leading centers for psi research
in the United States spent an aggregate total of $552, 000 per annum with a
median amount per center of $17,000. In 1979, the McDonnell Foundation, created
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by che lase James S. McDonnell, chairman of the MeDonnell Douglas Foundation,
comsted $500,000 :o Washington University in St. Louis to set up a psychic
research laboratory. It is the largest amount of money ever contributed tc
a psi research prugran.
A survey of Al proposals for Federal funding of psi research between Jane
1971, and June 1978 revealed that only four were approved. two were approved
but not funded, and is were disapproves. Total funding for the approved pro-
jects amounted to $179, 500 over the seven year period. The total project: not
approved for fune.ng :epresented a dollar value of $: . 3 million. The majority
of disapproved proposals received low merit ratings or criticism of experimental
design and methodology.
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PSI RESEARCH IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES
The recently established Journal sf Psi Research. an East-West
journal dealing with parapsychslowy, psychotronics, and psychobiophysics,
9/ Zimmerman. Howard. Gardner Murphy Research Institute. Persona!
communication.
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ple of'. the international character of serious interest in psi
phenomena.
editorial board of that journal represents the countries of
Australia, Brazil, Canada, Britain, Holland, Israel, Italy, Norway, the Soviet
Union, and the United States. Foi research is also actively practiced in the
countries of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, India, Japan, Mexico, Poland, and the
Peoples Republic of China. 10/ 11/ 12/
The categorical emphasis on psi research varies from country to country.
For example, it is widely speculated that the Soviet Union is actively pursuing
practical applications of psi phenomena for economic, military, and health
purposes. There is considerable Sovie: interest in remote hypnotic manipul
sion, dowsing for water. oil, and other minerals (referred to in the Soviet
literature as the "biophysical or b:olocational effect"), PK, and psychic
healing. The Soviets claim chat scientific studies of dowsing have yielded
significant results. Accordingly, dowsing is taught co professional mineralo-
gists and geologists Et Tomsk Polytechnical Institute. It is also speculated
that the Soviet Government is firmly committed to the funding of osi research
and thse much of this funding, variously speculased :o amount to tens of
millions of dollars, is directed toward military research, although there is
no fire confirmation of this speculation. 13/
10/ Vilenskoya, L. Psi in the USSR: Applied Aspects. Applied ?si
Newsletter, v. 1, no. 1, 1982. p. 4-5.
11/ Puthoff, R. E. Investigations Into "Extraordinary Human Body Func-
tion" in China. Fsi Research, v. 1, no. 4, 1982. p. 4-8.
12/ Ryz!, M. New Advances in East Europes. Parapsychology. Psi Re-
search, v. ! , no. ! , 1982. p. 5-13.
13! Vilenskaya. L., op. cit.
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In the People's Republic of China, psi research is officially described
as "exceptionel' human functioning" and research focuses on the Ecllowing
subjects:
1. A system of deep breathing exercises to promote psi conditions
(known as "quigong").
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2. The perception of images without the benefit of vision (eyeless
sight).
3. The remote sensing of pain in other people.
4.
Remote sensing directed toward identifying the characteristics
of previously unknown people.
5.
Remote perseption of thoughts in other people.
6.
Healing by means of laying on of hands (psychic healing).
7.
Purposeful mental influence on cther people.
8. Teleportation.
The Chinese effort appears to be a relatively recent pl enomena. 14/
The focus of interest in psi research in Canada, Great Britain, France, and
Scher West European countries is gererally oriented toward mind-mind or
Bind-matter interactions as in the United States. The Journal of Fsi Research
has provided an excellent insight into internasional psi research.
14/
PuchofE, H. E., op. cit.
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THEORY
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This summary report will not attempt to discuss in any detail the various
theories of mechanisms of psi phenomena. It is sufficient to state at this
time that there exists ac conclusive physical theory of psi, although extensive
scholarly dialogues and debates continue. 15/ Next to the aforementioned
evasiveness of replicable effects under controlled experimental settings
one frustration in che fleid is the absence of theoretical models with which
to bridge the cap tesween theory, experiment, and practice, the fundamental
cornerstone of all scientific progress. Quantum mechanics and Bell's thecren
seem to offer prcrise at present.
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Present physics! theories ci psi phenomena are clustered in six broed
groups that will be briefly reviewed below. The first serious models dealt
with electromagnetic fields usually in the extremely low frequency range
(i.e., ELF-IC Ne er !over !. This mocel assumes that the propagation of electro-
magnetic fields of extremely low frequency so er from the brain can act to
carry at least some psi effects. Existing experimental resuits pertinent
so this hypothesis render the ELF model unpromising, although it is not
totally rejected.
Other types of geophysical waves have been considered in the context of
psi phenomena, such as geoseismic waves, infrasonic waves, and barometric fluc-
Buations. All of these seem to be inadequate to deal with certain classes of
psi phenomena, particularly remote viewing ard precuqaicion.
. 15/ Jahn, Robert, op. cit.
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That these known physical factors in the environment cannot be effec-
tively applicato psi theory does not prove that they do not interact in a
more direct manner with the human and animal organism via certain components
of the central nervous system. For example, a number of experiments are
..
underway to determine if certain humans and animals can premonitor seismic
and volcanic activity. It is hypothesized that this uniquely sensitive group
may be able co couple convencional auditory or vestibular function wich
small fluctuations in electromagnetic fields, gravity fields, acoustic (infra-
sound or ultrasound) fields, or barometric pressure days or even weeks bu
major cataclysmic events. Such a direct coupling effect may or may not .b
a bearing on che psi phenomena discussed thus far.
More recent efforts to develop a workable theory for psi phenomena have
involved various categories of physical theory such as:
.
- statistical mechanics and statistical thermodynamics: the subtle
interplay of Ene :hermooyhamis concept of entropy with information
theory as applied to a broader implication in terms of the isle of
human consciousness in ordering rencom processes ;
- hyperspace theories: the basis laws of physics are recast in more
Chan four coordinates of normal human experience and the consequent
new terms are applied to the representation of psi phenomena;
-
quantum mechanics: an inherently probabilistic approach that lends
Itself to representation of phenomena chat depart significantly from
strictly deterministic sequences of cause and effect. This is now
accepted :n scientific theory. Of significance in quantum mechanics
is the effect of the observer on the experiment;
- Bell's theorem: emphasizes that "no theory of reality compatible
with quantum cheory can sequire specially separated events to be
independerc." Rather, it must permit physically separated events
to interact with each other in a manner that is contrary to ordinary
experience;
- helsgraphie transformations: all reality is regarded as deployed
in an infinite froid cf amplicade' frequency information. The brain
is hypothesized cc, function as a Fourier transform cevice to provide
the familiar space/time locali=>> Leszery;
.
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.core extreme in conceptual difficulty; chese
contend that psisprocesses are inseparably holistic and that no
modelirooted in. Say domain of established science can adequately
represent manifestations that cut across the established sciences
and the creative,"aesthetic world without somehow combining the
philosophical perspectives and techniques of both domains. 16/ 17/
These theories suggest that the following general hypothesis may
become subject to more detailed examination:
1. Psi phenomena may be most fruitfully approached at this point on
a statistical basis rather than directly causal. They may represent
marginal changes from normal behavior on a large scale and with
fluctuation times that tax human observational capability. it may
be necessary to consider more complex statistical mechanics to
represent the most drastic effects;
.
P
.
2. Just as human consciousness is able to extract information from
an exterral system by observing it, that consciousness may also
have the ability to project information into an external syates
by ordering random processes;
3. Quantum mechanics may be more than a system of physical mechanics.
It may be a more fundamental representation of human consciousness
and perception processes. The empirical bases of this formalism
may Le as much laws of consciousness as laws of physics;
4. Psi understanding may be inherently holistic. Therefore, the
ultimate model may need to re.d both scientific and aesthetic
concepts in sider to identify the sources of psi phenomena.
The psi condicion may be a manifestation of the intersection of
the analytical, scientifis world sich che creative, aesthetic
world. so that it may be necessary to integrate both perspectives
without sacrificing the integrity :f either. 18/
16/ Jaha, Robert, op. cit.
17/ Princeton University, op. cit.
18/ Sahn. Robert, op. cit.
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CR
PUBLIC AND SCIENTIFIC PERCEPTIONS OF PSI RESEARCH
. .....
CRITICISM OF PSI RESEARCH
Criticism of psi research is widespread and often unjustif
ied because
of the traditionally anecdocal and phenomenological nature of the field and
because it is difficult to obtain statistically reliable, replicable
J
sults under many condicions, including the most rigidly-designed and con-
1
trolled settings. Commonly cited criticisms that are applicable to all of
the sciences include the following: 19/
1. Demonstrasie fraud, which has occurred in several cases recently.
2. Foorly conceived methods, including inadecuace controls, faulty
equipment, sensory cueing of participants, experimental bias.
selective :featment of lacs, improper statistical processing,
and general experimental ass theoretical incompetence.
3. Suppression ::
resslEs.
The remaining criticisms apply to pai research specifically:
1. Absence of adequate theoretical modeis and little improve-
men: in tre comprehension of psi phenomena over many years
cf study.
". Poor experimental replicmbility and elusiveness of effects
under sicse scrutiny.
3. Sensitivity of results to participants, attitudes and labora-
tory setting.
4. Tendency for results to be only marginally significant com-
pared to chance expectation.
5. Contradictory nature of much pri chenomena with personal
psychology, philosophy, theology, or "common sense."
:
19/ Jann, Robert. op. cit.
.
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Tel:should
Falco
.note that the quality of criticism of psi is often
poor.
iveness of psi phenomena under carefully controlled and observed
conditions 'seems . presently to be the most compelling criticism of the field
in general. At the same time, this observation may also lend urgency to
further investigation into psi phenomena. Many other scientific endeavors
in early stages of investigation have proven to be frustrating to the inves-
tigator because cf a lack of understanding of the phenomenon under scrutiny.
L
Radiation biology is an example of such a dilema. In the very' early stages
of research into the interactions of ionizing radiations with biological systems
there was an almost total lack of appreciation for the health effects of acute
doses of radiation, particularly x-rays, despite the fact that the physics
of producing the :adiation was well understood. This lack of understanding
led to severe radiation injury of many prominent, early researchers in the
field such as Mme. Joliot Curie. Although the acute effects of Lonizing radia-
tions are well-understood today, their subacute of low-level effects remain
the subject of considerable controversy.
By definition, contemporary science does not permit a definitive explana-
tion of the nature and mechanisms of psi phenomena. That these factors remain
unexplained does not necessarily mean that they are unexplainable. The under-
standing of psi phenomena may be hampered by the present level of development
of the sciences. Traditional scientific methodologies may need to be broadened.
. .
1
To the credit of the psi research community, it has encouraged thorough
and objective scrutiny of negative data in journals regularly publishing on
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the subjects.
Bestof benefits accrue from such a policy. First, nega-
tive data are.
important to any scientific exploration. Second, a
quantitative index is provided of the ratio of positive to negative outcomes
-
in a given class of psi experiment, thereby providing a broader view of the
overal! statistical nature of the phenomenon. Third, documentation of specific
conditions prevailing in unsuccessful experiments may contribute toward
excluding irrelevant factors from further consideration and identifying and
reducing counterproductive influences. Finally, negative data 'se:ve to demon-
strate that psi pheommena, if real, are highly irregular and sensitive to
intangible influences beyond the control of science at its present level of
development. 32
THE POSITIVE SIDE
-:
:
It would be misleading to leave the reader with the impression that ;si
phenomena, as they are presently understood, are generally rejected by che
public and by sciences. Indeed, quite the opposite would seem to be true.
All polls of bach the public and the scientific community in recent : ears
have yielded evidence of a generally positive attitude toward the existence
and relevance sf psi phenomena as a class and research into them. The gen-
eral public accepts the concept of psi, often based on personal experience.
In addition, a number of recent experiments have yielded more or less con-
sistent positive results under rigorous conditions of investigation, even
though the mechanisms of these functions remain unexplained. It is also
worthy to note that historically, psi phenomena have been reported with
.
--
.
20/ Jahn, Robert, op. cit.
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striking
Spicy .. across a whole spectrum of human conditions, both natural
and experiment
It
-accepted by the scientific pai research community that the role
of the critic, particularly in this controversial field, is quite essentia !.
When the criticism is objective and fair, it can promote discipline in research
and ensure that the fundamentals of sound scientific methodology prevail.
Here, as elsewhere, if criticism violates these same rules and if it lapses
into categorical rejection, sloppy logic, or emotional and negative prejudice,
then it assumes as suspicious a character as the objective of its criticism.
:
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POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS FOR GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY
Given the present, uncertain status of psi research, it is premature co
attempt any kind of definitive evaluation of its potential impact on govern-
ment or society. If replicable psi phenomena prove in the future to be elusive,
then it is reasonable to expect the field co slowly die out as a scientific
discipline.
If, on the other hand, certain psi phenomena and functions. prove to be
ssenable to scientific replication, predicsion and control, then quite another
prospecs comes into play. Results of recent psi research suggest that some
psi phenomena can be acquired and repeated fairly reliably, if less than
ideally, under well designed and controlled conditions. This suggests to
some critical observers that there may be an interconnectiveness of mind with
sind and mind wich matter. It is also inferred from some preliminary positive
results that information might be accessed over time and space. If these
suspicions are subsequently confirmed, then the ability of humankind to con-
Erel these phenomena functionally and repeatably becomes a realistic goal
of psi research ..
El/ The implications of such a development for society
and government are, simply stated, vast in three fundamental categories:
1. acquisition of knowledge;
2. practical application of psi functions; and
3. depending upon such applications, the possibility of
general enhancement of the human condition.
-.
21/ Gough, W. C., E. Rauscher, J. Houck, and V. Gruve. The Status cf
Research on the Physics of Consciousness: Working Models and Experiments.
Los Altos, California, Foundation for Mind-Being Research. Sept. 15, 1980.
4& P.
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With regard to the first category, basic knowledge might be gained in
Swo ways :
the acquisition of new scientific information and the improved
application of scientific methodology to deal more effectively with irregular
phenomena such as ESP, PK, and other psi phenomena. For example, in the
area of education, the ability of the human mind to obtain information purpose-
fully in a heretofore "intuitive" (i.e. "gut-feeling") manner could have a
significant impact on decisionmaking theory and practice and on traditional
approaches to training the human mind in educational and vocational settings.
With regard to the second category, potential applications of pof ce
only be speculated on conservatively, given the uncertain and relatively
irreplicable status of psi functions thus far subjected to systematic Ceru-
tiny. It seems likely to expect that such functions as remote perception,
precognition, and retrocognition are of potential interest to intelligence
agencies, law enforcement unies, and activities involving surveillance.
For example, "emotional imerints" have already been used to trace past
events in archeo: : cica: and police investigations. 22/
Dowsing sr divining for water, oil, and other minerais is an established
practice in this country and abroad, particularly in the Soviet Union. Ac-
cordingly, further investigation into the nature and possible mechanisms of
this phenomenon, which appears to incorporate both natural and paranormal
aspects, would seem to be warranted.
In the area of health, the coupling of traditional medicine wich mind-
initiated healing is being investigated and could be advanced. Recent work
22/ Jahn, Robert, op. cit.
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in this area with cancer patients using mental images and other facets of
holistic medicine bem to indicate a potential for more widespread applica-
tion.
It is possible to imagine a wide variety of applications of psi in such
areas as: animal training and interspecies communication; creativity, educa-
tion, and training; entertainment; decisionmaking; locating lost objects and
persons; futures forecasting; geological and archeological exploration; his-
torical investigations; medicine and dentistry; military intelligence and
:
..
police work; personne: management; Psychotherapy and counseling; scieatt:
discovery, and numerous others, including crime, persuasion, mischief; and
disinformation.
In the area of nigh technology, low-level er micro-PX effects have been
observed in experiments with random-even :- generators (REG) in which it is
speculated that certain maifunctions may have been induced by human subjects.
St.ese findings, : : valid, may have implications in the developing tecrpologies
involving sierselectronics: Bf basic functions of Fieroelectronic elements
. could be even ali ntly disturbed by intentional or unintentional human inter-
vention. it would be important to obtain some assessment of the potercial
magnitude of sush effects and factors favoring or inhibiting such effects.
Understanding this phenomenon would be important before more elaborate inte-
grated circuit arrays, graphic display systems, and other sensitive, san!
machine interfaces are committed to even more complicated and critical opera-
tions. For example, PK experiments are underway to examine the possible
disturbance of the memory functions of single microelectonic chips.
Che there anc firal category of the implications of psi, the general
enhancement of the human condition, is the most important and far-reaching
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one, and ivet"the most difficult one to speculate on at this time. There
has been much discussion about this implication that usually arrives at the
same general question: Would convincing demonstration of the ability of hu-
man consciousness to influence its real world to a significant degree result
in altering individual and collective perceptions of the human condition,
its value systems, and ultimately, its social and behavior patterns, thereby
facilitating evolution to a "higher form" of human existence than prevails
today! From one foregoing discussion, it is obviously premature to attempt
an answer to this lofty question. Perhaps it is sufficient to speculate at
this time that a general recognition of the degree of interconnectiveness
of minds, or of minds with matter, could have far-reaching social and poli-
tical implications for this nation and the world.
In order to better understand psi phenomena and possible functions, and
ultimately, to gain a better understanding of their place in tomorrow's seci-
ety, it is generally thought that it will be necessary to accept the :rans-
disciplinary nature cf esi.
It is widely considered in the psi community and
society ac large ona: research into psi phenomena in any categorical secte:
should become more communicative ard interactive across traditional scholarly
boundaries. Thus. cross-fertilization of ideas and knowledge cannot be limited
to fields traditionally related closely to one another, such as physics and
engineering, biology, physiology and medicine, and psychology and sociology.
This line of thought contends thas the insights of the theologian, philosopher,
statistician, technologist, scientist, and holistic thinker may all be necessary
if psi phenomena are to be rendered into comprehensible and applicable entities.
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Conversely ,:
suspected that insular approaches to psi research will not
likely yield. re
Proponents argue that to exploit the potential benefits
of psi, it will be necessary to fund research at a much higher level than
at present. Whether or not psi is a real or usable phenomenon, the recognition
that psi may be able to enhance the human condition could have far-reaching
implications for science and the society it serves.
The present state of psi research is diffuse, largely unstructured, and
hesitant, with cany internal cross-currents and divergencies of emphasis and
method. Along with the promise of significant new possibilities, resortA.
into psi phenomena harbors many dangerous pitfalls for the unwary investigator>
Effective realisation of the considerable porentials of psi, or its debunking
will require the breadth of vision provided by an open, humanistic perspective
as well as the rigor and scientific discipline provided by conventional re-
search tradition. 23/
1
23/ Jahn, Rober:, op. cit.
.
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CLOSING REMARKS
3.
This summary report is largely based on the recent review article prepared
by Dr. Robert Jahn, Dean of the School of Engineering/ Applied Science, Princeton
University that appeared in the February issue of the IEEE Proceedings .. Addition!
references in Chas article and from the Gardner Murphy Research Institute provided
further background and are listed below (appendix A and B). The Congressional
Research Service possesses a large collection of additional bibliographic, journal
and monographic material on various aspects of psi research which can be made
available upon request.
.
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Appendix A.
GARDNER MURPHY RESEARCH INSTITUTE
-
POST OFFICE BOX 9313 . DUKE STATION
DURHAM. NORTH CAROLINA :".06
A Brief List of Recommended Readings in Parapsychology
:
A. Technical Books
1. - Beioff, J. (Ed.) New Directions in Parapsychcloov. Metuchen, N.J. :
Scarecrow Press, 1975.
2. Broad, C.D: Lectures in Psychical Research. New York: . Humanities
Press, 1962.
3. Krippner, S. (Ed. ) Advances in Parapsychological Research: A Biennial
Review. New York: Plenum, Volume 1, 1977.
4. Murphy, G. , and Dale, L.A. Challence of Psychical Research: A Primer
of Parapsycholocy. New York: Harper & Row, 1961.
1
5. Rhine, J.B. and others. Extra-Senscry Perception After Sixty Years.
Boston, Brancen Press, 1965 (First published in 1940).
6. Schmeidler, G.R. (Ed.)
Extrasensory Perception. New York: Atherton, 1969.
7. Schweidler, G.R. (Ed.) Parapsychiccy: Its Relation to Physics. Bialcav,
Psvateleav and Psychiatry. Metuchen, N.J .: Scarecrow Press, 1976.
8. Thouless, R.H. From Anecdote to Experiment in Psychical Research. . London
and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972.
9. Tyrrell, G.N.M. Science and Psychical Phenomena. New York: Arno Press,
1975 (First published in 1933).
10. Wheatley, J.M.D. , and Edge, H.L. (Eds. ) Philosophical Dimensions of
Farapsycholoav. Springfield, Ill .: Thomas, 1976.
ʻ
11. White, R.A. Surveys in Parapsychology: Reviews of the Literature. with
Upcated Sibliccrashies. Metuchen, N.J. : Scarecrow Press, 1976.
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. 12."White";"'
and Dale, L.A.
Parapsychology: Sources of Information.
Metucheny. N.D. : ", Scarecrow Press, 1973.
13. Holman . (Ed.)
Handbook of Parapsychology. New York: Van Nostrand,
1977
B. Popular and Historical Books
1. Gauld, A. The Founders of Psychical Research. New York: Schocken, 1968.
2. Heywood, R. Beyond the Reach of Sense. New York: Dutton, 1961.
3. Hintze, N.A., and Pratt, J.G. The Psychic Realm: What Can You Believe?
New York: Random House, 1975.
4. Murphy, G. , and Ballou, R. (Eds. ) William James on Psychical Research.
Clifton, N.J .: Kelley, 1950.
5. Pratt, J.G. ESP Research Today: A Study of Developments in Parapsychology
since 1960. Metuchen, N.J. : Scarecrow Press, 1973.
6. Rhine, L.E. Psi: What Is !!? The Story of ESP and PK. New York: Harper
& Row, 1975.
7. Roll, W.G. The Poltergeist. New York: New American Library, 1972.
8. Ullman, M., Krippner, S., and Vaughan, A. Dream Telepathy. New York:
MacMillan, 1973.
.
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Appendix 3. Further References
on Pai from Jahn *
[ 1 ] M. Ebon. "4. history of purapsychology."La Prychte Explevenon,
E. D. Michell er al .. J. Wie. Es. New York: Putr.am. 1974.
:SI A Gould The Founder of Psychical Rescaren. New York:
Schocaen. 1966.
.
[2] ] S. House and associa'n, Panelvenolery from Duke to .FR.T.M.
Durum. NC: Parapsychoicy Press. ISOS.
[+] H. Campion. The Story of:'syelse Sesense (Psychtral Resesren).
New York: Iva Washburn. 1931.
IS| R. C. LeQu. EL. The Letter of WEiam James and Theoder!
Flourasy. (Foreward by Gardner Murphy.) Madison, W7: Un-
veruty of Wuconsin Preis :986.
.
[6] B. S. Moiman, EL. Hancasot of farepsychology. New York:
Von Nestraad Reishe'd. 1977.
[7] D. S. Rogo, Parapsychology. A Century of Inquiry. New York:
Toplu: rer. 1975.
[6] F. Humana, Parceiny. Life and Propheciez Blauvelt, NY:
Rudolf Steiner Pabuestors. 1973. pp. 103-131.
[9] M. Bu. "Fransu Bacon: Moseer in purapsychology." Int J.
Parapsychol .. VI. no. :. :. 1+3-208. Sprung 1964.
[10] J. Clannad Salveumw Trumpras Introdusuon by C. O. Fr.
DOES. FICUALES CCIL Gunmsv.Jr. FL: Scholars' Facturader und
Reprints. 1966. (Onganaly subathed is 1689.)
: 1! R. Harres. Philosopher K. 11 - The Humanus Pope Benedict AJV.
London, England: wriden'r d & Nichossan. : 970.
( ::; C. Richei. "La suesmuon mentale e: le calcul des protatilris."
Rev. F.ulwegR., 15. 55 6ºJ-6 74, 1934.
1:31 C. Riches. "Further Eppe ment in Myanche luci dity or clar-
voyasce." la Proc. Soc. for Prven'est Rese .. "ch, s. pp. 06-63,
. 1:1; E Swedenborg Sinne Love and wisdom. New York . Sweden
borg Fouesspon, lac. 19" ?.
·
.
CRS-31
PROCEEDINGS OF THE LEEZ, VOL. TO,-NO. 8. FEBRUART, LO1;
.
:
(15) C. Trebuiesa, Sonderborg. Life and Tracking: X
Swedenborg Foundation, Ins .. 1976.
[16] L Rom, The Prendent's Wife, Mary Todd Lincoln, Tiew York:
Putnam, 1973.
[17] F.W.H. Myers. Human Personattry and the Survival of BodBy
Death, (Abridged ked edited by S. Sauth.) Secsvery, NJ: Ual.
VOTUITY BOOKS. 1961. (Oripeslly published in 1903. 2 vob.)
18] W. F. Barrett, "Appendix to the report ou theugas-reaching."la
Proe. Soc. for Psychical Research, 1, pp. 47-64, 1882.
[ 19] O. J. Lodge, "An account of some experiments un though I-tress-
ference." La Proc. Soc. for Frychica! Reseren, 2, 93. 189-200,
1884.
[20] The American Society for Psychical Research, Lac. S W. 73 3L.
New York, NY 10073.
[21] W. Jamm. Human : nmortality: Two Supposed Objections so the
Duemine. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. 166 8.
(22) -. "Report of the Communee en Mediumuric Phenomers," la
Proc. Amercan See. for Prychicel Reserch, 1, pp. 105-106,
LOS6.
[23] G. Murphy and R. O. Ballon, William James on Frychica! Ra.
wach. New York: Viking Fress, 1 369.
[24] W. James, "Psychical research." in The WIR ro Believe and Other
Essays u Populær Philosophy. New York: Longman, Green.
Lad Co., 1897.
[Es]
- "Review of haces personally and its santral of thecity
death by F. W.H. Myers, " in Proc. Soe. for Prychical Research,
18, p. 23. 1903.
..
[26] S. Frevd. "A sote on the unconscious in prycho-analyz's." la"
Proc. Soc. for Psychical Research, 26, po. 312-318. 1912. 9:P.
7) -. Studies in Perspsychology. New York: Celet Beste
1963.
[23] C. G. Jung. Synchronidry. , Princnon, NJ: Princcien Uafits ki
Prou (Bollungen Series #30), 1973.
1:9] -. On the Psychology and Pathology of So- Called Occul Ple.
ROMERE, Princeton, NJ: Princeton L'aisemuy Fross ( Be'lij zen !
Senes = 20). 1957. (Originally published in 1903, doctorni (b)- 3'
IfTiation, University of Buel.)
[30]
-, Memones Dreams, Refiserions. (Recorded and edited by's;
A. Jaffe, trandsted by Richard and Clara Winston.) New Yorks,
Vintage Books. 1965. P. 137.
.
..
[31) W. Paul aDe C. G. Jung, Eds, The Interpretation of Neare end':
The Prvene. Princeton, NJ: Princeton L'anchaty Preu ( Collinges :
. - nes =51). 1955.
i Enseewald. "Pil, psychotherapy, and psychoanalysis,"
Handbook of Parapsychoiory. B. B. Wolmac, E4 New York:"
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1977. pp. 929-54C.
5
[33] M. Low. "Mychepathology ine gu pher ocena," in Hond'book
of Parapsychology. B. B. Watman, E. New York: Van Nostrand
heiabo'd. 1977. 93. 557-576.
[34] J. C. Pras. J. B. Phine. C. E. Stuur .. and B M. Smith, Ezme
Sensory Perception After Sixty Years New York: Helt, 1940 ..
[35] 3. B. Rhine, New World of the Ming. New York: William Mer-
row Lod Co., 1993.
[36] J. D. Rhine, E4, Progress in Parspryet alory, Bursam. NC: Pura-
Psychology Press, 1971.
[27] L. E. Rhue. Mars Over Manter Psychokusy New York: Mas-
millan. : 5 70.
(38] J. B. Riune. "Piland psychology . Conflict und solution. " J. Porr
psychol .. 12, pp. 101-188. 1968.
[39] Eur J Paressychol. Int. J. Parepsychol. (ce.snc:). J. Pepsy-
chol. J. A TIET Soc. Psychical Rescere" J. Soc. for Psychical Re
search, ParapsychOL Rev .. Proc Soc. for Psychical Research.
[40] U'S Universities, Colleges: Chicago; Colorado: Columtu; CUNY:
Delaware: Denver: Diesel: Duke: Finen: Harvu d: Dincis: John F.
Kennedy: Ke !! State: Michigar : Missoun; Mundelein: Newart
College of Engneenrt: New School for Social Research: NYU:
Josepa Y: South West M.namois: Syracuse: L'C;Berkeley: UC !..
Davu: L'C;Lenne: UC/LA: UC/Ssata bubas; Vupais: Wateras ;-
Wat Flonda: West Georpa; Wisconımı: Yule. Formira' Asusup .
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das; Andbrs: Argentins: Benues: Bann: Cambridge: Chile:"
Cepennspe: Ediel:urgh: Fimburg: China: Hulifes : Iceland: Jemq :
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Lost : Leningrad: Leyden: Loaden: Loyola: Lund: Mc GM; MS
Det: Mysore: New South Wales: Osi ifB: Pars. Peking; Rhodes:
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F.czeuch Lai. Princeton, NJ. Science Urlimited Rrasuren
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