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SRI
DATA
On Chinese
Photodiode
EXPERIMENT
Y
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SG1E
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TAB
Abstract
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南
大
The strange themoment of reranormal Functions of
the human body affecting on a Photosensitive Diode
by Zheng Tiun Mim Zne Nian Lin, Luo Ain, du Jun, Chen Quo Choi
(Yunnan University) Li Hong Yi (Wuhan University)
Abstract
The strange phenomena produced on u photosensitive diode held in
the palm of a child with parsnormal function are report in this
paper. The Characteristic-Curve Tracer indicates that by concentrat-
ing their mind upon their palns, or "working", the children with
paranormal function can emit unknown radiation, which can induce ab-
normal cnunge in the photosensitive diode and alter the character-
istic curve thereof. The chief features of such changes ure us
follows :
1.A negative emf is produced even when the photosensitive diode
is covered with a piece of black poper.
2. The back resistance is conspicuously reduced and the leckage
current increased surprisingly.
J. The closed loop of the reverse characteristic curve which is
due to the defects of the diode is subject to phase changes during
the "working".
+. There is no apparent difference in the above mentioned phenomena.
during the course of the experiment whether a piece of black paper
is plucea between the diode and the palm or not.
5. The characteristic curve is restored to its normel stute when
the child stops his or her "working".
After magnifying the paranormal change with a . radiometer amplifier,
the output potential variations are displayed with an X-Y record.
It is found thut the unknown radiation is closely related to the
parunormal function. The following important features are observed.
1. The children with puranormal function produce nege tive readings
on the radiometer in conalison with the positive reddings obtained
wben light rudiution is received.
2. There are differences of 2-v order of magnitude in the potential
changes producea between normal children and those gifted with purs-
normal functions. Thelatter are 10-10, whereas the former are 10-10.
S. The results obtained when the gifted children are "working" und
when they are not "working" with the diode are conspicuously differ -.
ent. The values are zero when they are not "working".
4. When the gifted children were in the course of recorgnizing
hiocen letters, or practising telepi thy or In, the curves on the A-Y
recorder are closely related to those displayed in the course of
"working" with the diode, rising from the beginning of "working" und
dropping to the zero level at the end of "working".
5. When the gifted children were watching the recording apparatus,
the resulting readings were nigher. It seems that there appeared un
action of conscious feedback.
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南
大
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o. There are great differences in the graphic recordlugs
for allierent individiale among the gifted children.
7. In comparing measurement on the x-Y recoruer for mind
concentration upon the pains between practitioners of Chinese
martial arts and the gifted children, the children showed migher
Denturestuce on the average, although a few martial arts prae-
titioner's u16 scored high.
The above results indicate tout the photoseusitive alone is
& Bullaute device for measuring objectively the suabot infor-
mation emities , children with paranormal functions.
published in "mature Journal" 4.6. (1961)
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TAB
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Original Paper
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き
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人体特异功能在一种光敏探头上的异常现象
郑天民 朱念麟 罗 新 木 钧 陈国オ (云南大学)
李洪仪
(武汉大学)
一年来,我国人体特异功能的研究已经由信息传
递与接收、处理,发展到特异功能致动的水平. 对这
些特异现象的物理和生理等各方面的观察和实验正在
广泛地设计和进行.我们认为,所有这些特异现象的出
现都和“特异功能”儿童所发未知辐射与物质的相互作
用有关,最近,我们进行了一组特异辐射与物质相互
作用的实验,并利用这一结果,通过辐射仪对具特异
功能儿童的“发功”过程进行了图象描迹记录,得到了
一些有意义的结果。 现将实验结果整理报告如下.
-
我们用辐射仪对具特异功能的儿童小孙、小邵、
小杨、小陈等,在用特异功能认字、辨色、拨钟表和
致动等特异功能状态下的“发功”过程进行测量.(在
作上述特异功能的同时,将辐射仪探头置于手心或腋
下,从而进行测量.)在这个过程中,发现辐射 仪的
数码显示出现负读数(辐射仪在室温、无辐射时调
零),为了找寻负读数出现的原因,我们发现:特异功
能儿童发功时,改变了该仪器探头的物理特性这一特
异现象.
|辐射仪的探头是灵敏度为10-7W/cm3,测量有效
响应在 190~1100nm 范围内的光敏二极管. 在遮光
条件下(如图1),用 JT-1 型图示仪测量其晶体管反
向特性曲线时,当Y轴取集电极电流 0.01 毫安/度档,
X轴取集电极电压为0.5伏/度档,峰值电压调至-6
伏左右,限流电阻取1kQ 时,图示仪荧光屏上出现如
图 2(a)所示之正常二极管反向特性曲线,在实验测
量之前,我们用黑纸遮光,
一
保护圈
在探头前加上高为1厘米
、無纸
的保护圈(如图1),以防
.
止受试者手心直接接触二
“光敏二极管
极管,然后将探头交给受
试者,握在手中,手心(劳
宫穴)对着探头窗口 .. 当
她们“发功”(即处于特异
图1
功能状态)时,曲线立即
6
16
4
4
2
12
-6
F4
-2
0
V
(a)
(b)
图2(a)正常状态下二极
管反向特性曲线
(b)特异功能作用下上述二极
管反向特性曲线
改变形状,呈现出如图2(b)所示之曲线.
由图2(b)可得一些重要结果:
1. 由图示仪刻度读数发现,在原零点电位处,
曲线右端升高,上升的大小与特异功能的强弱有关,
最大可达五格左右, 相当于产生了约50毫伏的电动
势,
2. 同时,曲线向左下方倾斜,显示漏电流增大,
相当于并联了一个几十kQ的线性电阻(如图3).
.I
-6 -4 , -2 .
0
V
(a)
(b)
图3 (a)探头二极管反向
特性
(b)并联一个50kΩ 电阻时
探头二极管的反向特性
3. 把图2(b)与图3(b)相比较,除了曲线在Y
轴升高以外,还出现闭合曲线变肥的现象,这可能是由
于正常信号与发功信号之间产生了一个位相差所造成
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X10-
*10-04
6
4
4
0
2
8
1分1 0 1
2
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8 (分)
(a)
图5
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的结果,在发过功程中,曲线有“胖”、“瘦”的变化,·
说明位相差在发功过程中也相应变化.
4. 为排除可见光的干扰,在探头上加黑纸遮掩.
测量结果与不加黑纸的结果相同,这说明加了黑纸对
特异辐射似乎没有影响.
为了考查温度的影响,我们将探头放在冰块上,
仪器显示为零,而不显示负读数.
5. 当“发功”停止时,二极管立即恢复原来的特
性曲线.
光敏二极管探头接收光信号时所产生的常规特性
曲线,如图 4所示,光电流表现为整个曲线向下平移.
显然, 它与图2(b)是大不相同的.
由以上几点说明,光敏二极管探头可能接收到一
种不同于该管所响应的接收范围内的未知辐射,它与
探头相互作用使其特性曲线发生了变化,而形成这种
特异现象。 同时,也说明这种光敏二极管可能对“特
异辐射”敏感.
1
尽管我们利用辐射仪不一定是测量到常规的
190~1100nm(近紫外到近红外)波段的电磁波辐射.
但是,测量结果表明,仪器所显示的负读数的变化规
律,与特异功能儿童的发动状态密切相关。在某种意
义上,可以说,捕捉到了记录特异功能儿童发功的某
种客观信息指标, 它表现出发功的某种明 显 的 规 律
性,并且对照了特功儿童与一般人集中意识产生的差
别,同时还显示特功儿童发功与某种类型的气功师一
致,而与另一类气功师不同等一些有价值的结果.
1. 特异功能儿童与一般人的被测信号有显著差
别:
在多次测量过程中,我们发现具特异功能的儿童
和某些气功师在发功时,测得其负读数可达 10-3~
10 -* (W/cm3)的数量级(图5a), 然而一般人和另一
类气功师,尽管意识高度集中于探头,但是仍然不能
出现负读数, 有的人虽然也能产生负读数,但其数量
级至多也只能达到 10~6~10-'(W/cm3)(图5b), 两
相比较,读数相差二至三个数量级。
2. 特异功能儿童发功与不发功有明显差别:
(1)正如我们在《人体特异功能力学效应的初步
测试》一文[1]中描述的现象一样,图示仪再次记录到
与特异功能相关的一个个脉冲.
(2)在对特异功能儿童测量过程中,意识状态占
有极重要的地位. 当她们集中意识时,负读数骤然增
大;而当她们精力分散、谈话时,负读数立即下降;
不发功时,读数很快回到零指示,一般人虽然有时也
有负读数出现,但是,读数不仅只是在10-6~10-5左
右,而且还没有明显的意识调制效应. 图6的曲线是
在不同的意识状态下,特异功能儿童小孙的测量结果.
XIDール
6
4
0
一发功
-说话
–––发功
-- 说话一
发功
图6
4卷8期
有墊素志
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0
A
图4 光照时探头二极管的反向特性
.
(b)
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×10-'
8
1
×10-3
8
6
4
2h
-
2
.
3
4
5 4
图9
孙手握字条,经三分半钟,二人同时准确认出,此时
辐射仪数字显示最高,达到1×10→ *.
图9是小孙“拨钟”实验,她一手握探头,一手摸
小座钟(座钟已改装,外部无可动部分,说明见[1]),
经四分半钟,以特异功能把钟拨动,此时数字显示最
高,读数为1.15×10 -*.
图10是小孙用“特异功能取物”的实验记录,她用
了两分多钟,取来一朵小花,最高数字显示为1.56×
10 -*. 在接近完成时,功能的脉冲起伏十分巨大.
在测量中,极大多数认字的结果都是正确的,但
有时也有认错的情况,如图11所示,小邵经2分23秒
报告说认出字了,但核对结果是错误的。 然而,在认
字过程中,仍然接收到辐射变化的信息,与正确认字.
的结果并无二致.
由图7至图11的曲线峰值比较可看出,曲线的最
大峰值与作功的难度基本对应,如认字时.只是7x
X10-14
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
×10-1
8
6
4
0
1
2
8
(分)
0
1
2 式(分)
图10
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10-
0
图
10~,取花时达到1.56×1
以上.
4. 意识反馈作用:
图12所示曲线是特异:
注视数字显示器所形成的
11所得的曲线值高一倍到
儿童在作实验过程中,眼
过意识反馈,来加强这种
馈效应,数码显示最大值
种反馈作用对研究特异功
系和变化是很有意义的,
是十分重要的。 从这种反
能儿童在心情愉快和气恼
果所以会截然不同的原因
5. 特异功能儿童之
甚大;
图9是小孙拨钟,显
集的脉冲;图 5a 和图13
×10-11
1.87
1,6 H
1.4
1.2 --
1
.. 01x
8
6
. 4
2
1
0
-
1
图 8
西套素志 4卷8期
×10-11
12
.
6
4
-
.
2
.0
1
2
武分)
图 7
.
3. 特异功能儿童作功.(认字、思维传感、拨钟
表、致动等)时,被测信号与发功过程有明显的、有
规律的相关性;
为了研究特异功能儿童在接收信息和致动时与我
们所记录到的信息之间的相关性,我们让特异功能儿
童在认字、思维感传认字、拨钟和“致动”的同时,描
记其特异辐射,得到图7至图11的一组曲线。这些曲
线表明,特异功能儿童作功时,与所记录到的信息是
密切相关的,在作功时,特异功能儿童普遍存在一个
能量存储、集积的过程,它在曲线上表现为脉冲式地
不断的上升, 经过这段必要的“准备”时间后,作功便
取得结果。一旦取得结果,特异功能儿童便不再发功,
曲线回到零点.
图7是小孙认字,用了不到一分钟的时间认出,
在此过程中,曲线在脉冲式地不断上升,认出字时,
数字显示最高,读数为7×10→.
图8是小邵和小孙传感认字,小邵手拿探头,小
10-1
×10-1
8
61
2
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↓

3
4
54
、同时准确认出,此时
10 **.
!一手握探头,一手摸
动部分,说明见[1]),
发动,此时数字显示最
物”的实验记录,她用
曼高数字显示为1.56×
脉冲起伏十分巨大.
的结果都是正确的,但
万示 小邵经2分23秒
是需要的, 然而,在认
化的信息,与正确认字.
比较可看出,曲线的最
如认字时只是7x
2
成分)
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10-1
一
3 1(分)
图11
.
10-,取花时达到1.56×10→,功能强变增长了一倍
以上
4. 意识反馈作用:
图12所示曲线是特异功能儿童在测量过程中眼睛
注视数字显示器所形成的较高值曲线,它比图7至图
11所得的曲线值高一倍到几倍,这是由于具特异功能
儿童在作实验过程中,眼睛接收了显示信号,然后通
过意识反馈,来加强这种特异辐射,形成辐射的正反
馈效应,数码显示最大值达1.8×10+的数量级, 这
种反馈作用对研究特异功能儿童各生理状态的相互联
系和变化是很有意义的,同时对研究儿童心理状态也
是十分重要的,从这种反馈作用,就可以解释特异功
能儿童在心情愉快和气恼不悦这两种状态下作功的效
果所以会截然不同的原因,
5. 特异功能儿童之间所记录下的信息彼此差别
甚大,
图 9是小孙拨钟,显示时间约1秒的一个个很密
集的脉冲,图5■和图13是小杨和小陈的特功曲线,表
×10-14
1.8 7
1.5 -
1
I
2
3
4
5
6
图12
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3.4
X10-
O
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【(分)
图13
现为时间间隔相当宽的一个个分离的脉冲,脉冲宽度
约0.2秒,上升前沿小于 10 -* 秒,而幅度较大,约比
小孙、小邵大一个数量级,这与她们在特异功能实验
时的情况有密切的相关性,小孙的特异功能是相对比
较稳定的.
6. 气功师的测量信息彼此差别甚大:
我们邀请了一些气功师来做实验,记录到属于外
功型(或发射型)的气功师,基本上得不到负值读数。如
唐瑞林同志作了多次实验都得到大于零的结果,而内
功型(或接收型)的气功师又有两种情况:一是测量记
录与一般人同一数量级,仅只在10°*数量级上显示出
负值的结果(如图14),然而从曲线可以看到气功师孙
金全意识控制的稳定上升,与特
异功能儿童发功时显示的脉冲大
不相同,与一般人的波动也不相
同,二是内功敏感型气功师,发
功时,可以得到与特异功能儿童
类似的结果,数量级也相同,如
某研究所范剑峰同志, 因此,虽
然气功与特异功能都可能是一种
大脑意识活动高度集中后出现的
人体特异状态,但是我们所测量
到的这类信息中,不仅它们彼此
有区别,而且特异功能儿童之间
.
也各各有别,各类气功师之间也
7
((分)
有明显差别, 这对我们进一步研
·
究人体科学是具有重要意义的.
4卷8期
南無素态
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:
.
肉
X104
1.4
1.2
1
X10
6
4
20
80 120
.180
140
150
200
21
.
220
230 9
图14
三
1. 通过以上讨论,我们得出特异功能与辐射仪
探头内二极管的物质所发生的相互作用形式是与常规
测量时截然不同的另一种信息载体物质,我们暂称为
“特异辐射”. 通过一系列的实验,我们发现它与特异
功能儿童作功的各类特异现象密切相关。 因此对这一
现象的深入研究有助于探讨特异功能的物理学机制、
生理学机制等一系列本质问题.
.
2. 这个实验使我们对特异功能的某些现象的解
释,提供了有利的线索,例如,特异功能儿童“拨动”
电子表、以及使发射机信息变弱和中断等现象,由于
晶体管特性曲线在特异功能影响下会发生变化,这就
为解释这些现象提供了一种可能性.
3. 我们在用 2CU 系列、2AP 系列等一些常见
二极管进行测试时,有的毫无反应,有的虽然有反应,
但是重复率极低,并且没有出现“特异电动势”,仅有
漏电流增大的现象产生, 这说明特异辐射的探测需选
用适当的器件,因此特异辐射的探测与器件的结构类
型、材料等有关,同时与器件灵敏度关系也
很大.
4. 由于这一特异相互作用 现象的发
现,使我们对过去所进行的一些人体特异状
态的物理量的测量提出了新的置疑, 正如我
.
们通过辐射仪测量到的,并不一定是负辐
射,也不一定是频率在190~1100nm 范围内
的电磁辐射一样,过去所测到的红外、静电、
磁等效应和测量数值,到底是探头本身在特
异辐射作用下发生的非常规变化导致的相对误测量结
果,还是真实、正确的客观测量结果?值得重新研究
:
和校正,因为在人体科学中,未知因素仍然很多.
5. 尽管我们捕捉到了特异功能的某种信息,但
是目前尚不知道这种信息及其载体的本质所在,不能
断言这种信息是特异功能的本质信息,尤其对特异功
能致动而言更是如此, 因为能量如此微弱的信息,是
难于对非生物体完成特异功能致动的宏观效应的,因
此,从特异功能的各种现象来看,这种“特异辐射”可
能只是一种伴生信息或二次效应, 所以尚需进一步找
寻特异功能致动的宏观效应载体.
●在我们进行实验过程中,和云南大学无线电系副
系主任郑苏民副教授进行了有意义的讨论. 云南大学
物理系副系主任刘佩文、讲师张世鸾、陈星奎和王永熙
等同志参加了部分观察和讨论,杨毓林、张正华提供
了部分设备,特此表示衷心感谢.
[1] 云南大学人体特异功能研究组,“自然杂志》,4
(1981)348
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TAB
SRI Analysis
-
1
-
4
-
-
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THE STRANGE PHENOMENON OF PARANORMAL FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY
EFFECTING ON A PHOTOSENSITIVE DIODE:
ANALYSIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
Experimental Procedure
SG1A
Based upon the abstract provided, original figure captions and
the following experimental procedures
and apparatus appear to have been utilized for the first set of experiments:
. A photodiode with a sensitivity of 10-7 watts cm-2
in a bandwidth of 190-1100 nm was used. From Sze
*
(Figure 24 on attachments) we expect this to be a
silicon device.
. The photodiode was contained in a "well" of some
sort surrounded by a "protection ring" and covered
with black paper. At present the thermal and
electrical properties of this encapsulation are
unknown .
. A characteristic curve tracer (Model JT-1) was used
to reverse bias the diode and measure its voltage-
current response under various conditions.
. The curve tracer was set up so that the voltage
axis was .5 V per dimension and the current .01 mA/div.
Diode breakdown (the "knee" of the curve) was -6V with
a 1 KQ current limiting resistor.
Each subject then held the photodiode assembly in their palm and attempted
to influence the device. Successful experiments were marked by change in
the I/V characteristic from that typical of a diode to one more like a
+
resistor with some parallel capacitance as seen in Figure 2b.
In fabri-
cating prototype diodes this type of curve is seen quite often when the
"blocking" contact fails or the diode is partially shorted by conductive
surface states.
**
Physics of Semiconductor Devices, S. M. Sze.
+
Figure number used in original Chinese text.
1
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A second set of experiments was carried out with apparently the same
type of photodiode :
. The output of the diode has been amplified by a
"radiometer" amplifier.
It is not clear whether the
diode is reverse biased or used as a solar cell with
only the carrier diffusion length as an active volume.
. With "normal" children the amplified output was 10-5-10-6
W/cm2.
·
With "exceptional" children bursts of signal (noise?)
were observed up to 10-2-10-3 W/cm2 over periods of
several minutes.
Analysis
The results of both sets of experiments are open to several explana-
tions due to the ambiguous nature of the experimental procedure.
·
The change in I/V characteristic could be due to simple
heating of the diode. Attachments one and two both show
how leakage current varies with temperature. A 10ºC rise
above ambient could be expected from a hand-held device,
resulting in a larger leakage current. In addition, the
breakdown knee will sometimes move toward lower voltages
as the temperature rises resulting in noise or breakdown
bursts. Finally, surface states which are not seen at
room temperature may become active at higher temperatures
resulting in the hysteresis seen in the "exceptional"
I/V characteristics.
. If the diode and its container are not adequately
electrically shielded, the effect of holding the
assembly in one's hand would be to add components
of stray resistance and capacitance to the output
signal. This effect would be similar to that shown
in Figure 2b. Anyone who has worked with electrometers
is familiar with this effect. The usual cure is to use
BNC connectors and coaxial cable.
·
Finally, the infrared radiation associated with a black
body at skin temperature (310K maximum) might cause
some of the signals seen in the second set of experiments.
In particular, a warmer than room temperature diode could
2
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be operating in an already high leakage condition whereby
extra input (static charge, IR radiation) might initiate
carrier avalanche -- yielding large noise bursts. Attached
are several pages of figures and calculations which
demonstrate that the sensitivity of the detector lies
clearly in the IR region. Furthermore, application of
the Stefan-Boltzmann law demonstrates that ~5 x 10-3 w/cm2
may be available from a black body of 10% efficiency.
However the peak of the distribution falls at about 9-10 p.
At this wavelength neither a silicon or germanium diode
is very efficient. This result suggests one of the two
preceding mechanisms as a more likely candidate.
3
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Comments on Abstract"
- Photodiode sensitivity extends into IR
VISIBLE = = 44 to .74 @ 1% & max
ESTANDARD
OBSERVER)
(550 M)
IR 2 .7M-
10 M
Diode (from paper) x .190 to 1.1 M
- if Silicon max efficiency @ 73M
Black
paper does not alter
" efect
On diode,
-
Rc =e6 T4
(STEFAN -BOLTZMAN)
where . R.c = W/cm2
, e = emissivity
5= 5.67 × 10-8 W/MNOK
if T= 37°℃ +273 =
310°K
T+ = 9:235. X109
(1000 )
Rc = 5.24 ×10 2 w/M2 e
= 5.24 ×10- w/anze our al dr
if e = 10%.
Rc=
: x10 -3 W/cm2 overall da.
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3.63 ×10. W /Car
dr
-
3

W (watts/w) once Q .
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N
34
APPROX
BLACK BODY @ 310K
90
COVER 4TT STER)
4
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
--
1
12
M (x)
10- PHUW St
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36

662
VISIBLE SPEKTRUM
Optoelectronic Devices
0.5
A
EFFECTIVE QUANTUM EFFICIENCY
0.4
Si-
Ge-
0.3
50.2
He-Ne.
RUBY
He-Ne
ARGON
GaAs
YAG
He-Ne
0.0
0.4
0.6
1 0.8
I
1.2
1.4
1.6
WAVELENGTH (MICRONS)
+72
Fig. 24 Effective quantum efficiency (hole-electron pairs/photon) versus wavelength for Ge
and St photodetectors.
(After Melchior and Lynch, Ref. 39.)
-
R
[ PD(w)
C
0
(a)
1
O
W
-2.
R
is
C
Fig. 25
(a) Equivalent circuit and
(b) noise equivalent circuit of a photodiode, where R Is the series resistance and C is the
junction capacitance.
(After DiDomenico and Svelto, Ref. 35.)
4 Photodetectors
available power for the photo
100
It is interesting to compare E
For a typical photodiode with
a photoconductor with the sar
available power from the phot
from the photoconductor.
The signal-to-noise perform
equivalent noise circuit shown
noise source due to the series
source. The signal-to-noise ra'
(S/N) power =
7
41
Comparing Eq. (44) with Eq.
at high-level detection where
SNR is comparable; at low-lev
however, the SNR of the pho
B. The p-i-n Photodiode
depletion-layer photodetector.
(the intrinsic layer) can be tai
frequency response. A typical
Fig. 26(a). Absorption of ligh
pairs. Pairs produced in the de
will eventually be separated by
external circuit as carriers drif
Under steady-state condition
biased depletion layer is given
where Jar is the drift current
region and Jaiff is the diffusior.
side the depletion layer in the t
reverse-biased junction. We s
assumptions that the thermal g
surface n layer is much thinn
electron generation rate is give
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DETECTORS AND DETECTOR SYSTEMS
SILICON CHARGED-PARTICLE DETECTORS
characteristics. The detector changes include in-
creased noise and changes in voltage drop across the
load resistor, which require adjustments to the applied
bias voltage, which in turn change the electric-field
strength. Thus carrier trapping and increased detector
noise are degrading to energy resolution.
Resolution degradation appears as a broadening of the
response for a monoenergetic source. With increasing
doses of neutrons, charged particles, or fission frag-
ments, the low-energy side of the response peak may
begin to show a definite secondary peak. Continued
irradiation results in further broadening, until, in ex-
treme cases, the multiple peaks may merge com-
pletely. Electron bombardment tends to increase leak-
age current, resulting in excess detector noise, which
broadens response peaks. Some of these damage ef-
fects may undergo a degree of annealing, but there is
always a significant residual deterioration after a suffi-
cient dose has been accumulated.
Partially depleted detectors are more susceptible than
are fully depleted devices to deterioration from radia-
tion damage. Radiation damage for different types of
detectors are compared in Table 2, which gives the
dose for various particles to significantly deteriorate
the detectors.
OPERATING TEMPERATURE
As a rule of thumb, increasing the operating tempera-
ture of a charged-particle detector causes the leakage
current to increase by a factor of 3 for each 10℃ rise,
resulting in a noise-width increase of approximately 1.7
keV per 10°Crise. The upper temperature limit is deter-
mined by the maximum acceptable noise or by the
ultimate breakdown of the detector (usually between
45 and 55℃). The effects of high-temperature break-
down are permanent and are not covered by the war-
ranty terms. An additional effect is the shift in detector
bias caused by the higher leakage current. This leak-
age current increases the voltage drop across the se-
ries bias resistor, thus lowering the bias voltage across
the detector. When high-temperature operation is
necessary, a constant sensitive depth is maintained
over the entire operating temperature range only if a
totally depleted detector is used with sufficient
overbias to compensate for the drop across the series
bias resistor, which should be as small as possible
(usually 1 to 3 MS2 is adequate).
Decreasing the operating temperature of the detector
reduces junction noise and leakage current. However,
the capacitance of the device is a constant limiting
parameter of the system noise. Another limitation to
successful operation at low temperatures is the expan-
sion coefficient of the detector's component parts. The
expansion coefficient is similar for silicon and for lavite,
the ring in which the silicon wafer is mounted, but is
quite different for the bonding epoxy. Therefore at very
low temperatures the epoxy may crack, causing exces-
sive noise or loss of contact. The probability of low-
temperature damage increases with detector size. For
cooled operation, detectors fabricated with cryogenic
epoxy may be special ordered from ORTEC.
Another effect of decreasing the operating tempera-
ture of a silicon detector is an increase of the average
energy necessary to create an electron-hole pair, E.
Due to a widening of the bandgap of silicon in the
temperature range from 300 K to 80 K, E increases.
from 3.62 eV to 3.72 eV. A result of this increase is an
apparent shift in energy of a measured spectroscopic
line. For instance, Fig. 8 shows the apparent peak shift
of the 5.477-MeV 241Am alpha particle peak in the 4.2-
K to 320-K temperature range measured with silicon
charged-particle detectors.
SHOCK AND VIBRATION
Many ORTEC surface-barrier detectors have been
subjected to the shock and vibration tests required for
Table 2. Comparison of Radiation Damage in Silicon and Germanium Particle Detectors
Radiation Damage (particles/cm2)
Type of Detector
Electrons
Fast Neutrons
Protons
Alpha
Particles
Fission
Fragments
Surface barrier
1013
1012
1010
109
108
Diffusion junction
Si(Li)
1013
101
1010
10º
108
1012
1011
108-10º
Ge(Li)
108-109
#1
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27

GRAPH PAPER GRAPHIC CONTROLS CORPORATION Buffalo, New York
Princed in U 5 A
SQUARE
10 X 10 TO THE INCH
AS-0897 -GB
ELECTRON NOISE SOURCE UNIT 0/-
Proti 8585
LETRAGE
7817
109-79
2
2000
800
CUT-OFF THRESHOLD
TEMA IS
DIODE LEAKAGE
00
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95
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AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
$$
+30
25
PD
START
f ibele lection
SHETTY

Approved Por Rog
3
Chap. 39
a
K-S
d
S
E
Fig. 39,-17
sing charged. (a) Show that the
Flit __ al volume. (b) Show that
ated by integrating the Poynting
s equal to the rate at which the
energy density for all points within
che Poynting vector point of view,
gh the wires but through the space
we must first find B, which is the
ring the charging process; see Fig.
Nature and Propagation of Light
CHAPTER 40
40-1 Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Light was shown by Maxwell to be a component of the electromagnetic
spectrum of Fig. 40-1. All these waves are electromagnetic in nature and
have the same speed c in free space. They differ in wavelength (and thus
in frequency) only, which means that the sources that give rise to them and
the instruments used to make measurements with them are rather different. *
The electromagnetic spectrum has no definite upper or lower limit. The
labeled regions in Fig. 40-1 represent frequency intervals within which a
common body of experimental technique, such as common sources and com-
mon detectors, exists. All such regions overlap. For example, we can pro-
duce radiation of wavelength 10-3 meter either by microwave techniques
(microwave oscillators) or by infrared techniques (incandescent sources).
Frequency, cycles/sec
103
104
106
108
1010
1012
1011
10 16
10 18
100
1022
Power
Microwaves
Visible
x-rays
Radio
Infrared
Ultraviolet
Gamma rays
106
104
10ª
1
10-2
10-4
10-6
10-8
10-10
10-12
10-14
Wavelength, meters
Fig. 40-1 The electromagnetic spectrum. Note that the wavelength and frequency
scales are logarithmic.
* For a report of electromagnetic waves with wavelengths as long as 1.9 X 107 miles
the student should consult an article by James Heirtzler in the Scientific American for
March 1962.
993

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Chap. 4(
994
NATURE AND PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
volet
yellow orange
red
100
80
Relative sensitivity
60
40
20
0
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
Wavelength, mu
. Fig. 40-2 The relative eye sensitivity of an assumed standard observer at different wave-
lengths for normal levels of illumination. The shaded areas represent the (continuously
graded) color sensations for normal vision.
"Light" is defined here as radiation that can affect the eye. Figure 40-2,
which shows the relative eye sensitivity of an assumed standard observer to
radiations of various wavelengths, shows that the center of the visible region
is about 5.55 X 10-7 meter. Light of this wavelength produces the sensa-
tion of yellow-green .*
In optics we often use the micron (abbr. u) the millimicron (abbr. mu),
and the Angstrom (abbr. A) as units of wavelength. They are defined from
1 # = 10-6 meter
1 mu = 10-0 meter
1 A = 10-10 meter.
Thus the center of the visible region can be expressed as 0.555 4, 555 mu, or
5550 A.
The limits of the visible spectrum are not well defined because the eye
sensitivity curve approaches the axis asymptotically at both long and short
wavelengths. If the limits are taken, arbitrarily, as the wavelengths at
which the eye sensitivity has dropped to 1% of its maximum value, these
limits are about 4300 A and 6900 A, less than a factor of two in wavelength.
The eye can detect radiation beyond these limits if it is intense enough. In
many experiments in physics one can use photographic plates or light-sensi-
tive electronic detectors in place of the human eye.
* See "Experiments in Color Vision" by Edwin H. Land, Scientific American, May
1959, and especially "Color and Perception: the Work of Edwin Land in the Light of
Current Concepts" by M. H. Wilson and R. W. Brocklebank, Contemporary Physics,
December 1961, for a fascinating discussion of the problems of perception and the distinc-
tion between color as a characteristic of light and color as a perceived property of objects.