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BIOPHYSICS:  NEW EVIDENCE(?) FOR THE PLAUSIBILITY OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (EMR) BEING
THE PHYSICAL BASIS FOR NON-PRECOGNITIVE
EXTRA-SENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP)

FRED BLAU


The issue is not whether the phenomena of extra-sensory percept-
ion exists, but rather, if electromagnetic or other physical theories
adequately describes any or all of the phenomena.
Electromagnetic theories for the phenomena actually predate
their opposition by more than three centuries. Apart from Cartesian
arguments leading to dualism and materialism, the "mental radio"
models have traditionally and even recently been opposed upon at
least the four following grounds.
First, that although the high correlation between the electrical
activity of the brain and body with many psi phenomena is well
established, the brain does not emit coherent energy or radiation
detectable more than a few centimeters from the skull. Second, what
energies are emmitted lose their power very rapidly, according to the
optical, or inverse to the square of the distance rule, and such can-
not account for telepathic phenomena which occur over distances of
thousands of kilometers. Third, Em theories cannot explain the "down
thru" card deck clairvoyance phenomena. Fourth, any explaination of
precognition cannot possibly be electromagnetic.
Let it be conceded that the third and fourth objections are valid
and well taken. However, as will be shown, there is new evidence
that supercedes the first two objections. Although some researchers
in this field adhere to an only-one psi phenomena model, we do not.
Apparently to some, since Em theories did not account for all the
phenomena, it apparently did not account for any of it.
Although it was our original intent to present new evidence for
the plausibility of electromagnetic radiation being the physical basis
for non-precognitive extra-sensory perception, sometime between the
beginning of our research, about a year ago, and the present, it be-
came apparent to this researcher that there is little that is para-
physical about some esp phenomena.
Because we find that parapsychology may be reconciled with
psychology, the two synthesized upon classical physics and neuro-
physiology, this monograph has been altered only in style, but not
in content with respect to its stated purpose.

Upon the following quotation rests the foundation of this thesis.

"Finally, extra-sensory perception and sensory per-
ception appear to be much alike except in the relation of the subject
to the stimulus. When sensory perception is tested at a low level
of stimulus intensity which makes the process more comparable to
ESP, there is indication that it is subject to some of the influences
now known to effect ESP performance."  J.B. Rhine (November, 1940)

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BIOENERGY(?)

2.  BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ISSUE

Even before the seventeenth century, the topics of consciousness and communication were of central issue to natural philosophy and theology. The phenomena called extra-sensory perception by some, and bio-information by others has a long history of being known by many different names in many cultures and every historical time. It had, by this time, been well demonstrated that man's consciousness was interdependent as well upon his biology and physiology, and that these in turn were influenced by the physical environments.

Although in retrospect the issue concerns itself with the data derived from physics, physiology and psychology, the brief survey presented here shows quite clearly that the investigations undertaken were done so under the notion that the phenomena observed in one specialty was not related to phenomena observed in other specialties. This becomes very apparent when later on, radio phenomena, as practiced by electronic engineers and radio phenomena with respect to esp, bear little relation to each other, in the minds of the principal parapsychological investigators of the mid-twentieth century.

It would be difficult to say when the very first electromagnetic theories of psi first occurred, because the phenomena is described in words that predate modern scientific terminologies. Apropos of the specific issue at hand, the first mention of any phenomena relevant to the perception and/or emission of electrical or magnetic energy by the human organism occurs with Paracelsus (1493-1541). He was a physician and reputedly a psychic healer as well, and he believed that magnetism was a mysterious but natural force, that like the stars influenced the human body, even at a distance, by a subtle emanation that pervaded space. (Boring, 1929)

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) in Sylva Sylvarum, or a Natural History provides several accounts of precognition and telepathy, noting that they were natural phenomena, and that it belonged to a class of operations - "emissions," "transmissions," and influences, which "work at a distance, but not at touch." At about the same time, Van Helmont (1577-1644) originated the doctrine of animal magnetism, by teaching that magnetic fluids radiated from all men, and may be guided by the will to influence the minds and bodies of others. (Gudas)

A contemporary of the above was Gilbert, who in 1600 published de Magnete, principally a treatise on the lodestone, Gilbert concluded that the sun and earth were both magnets, the diurnal rotation of the earth dependent upon that magnetism. He also studied the phenomena of "electrics", but did not conclude that there was any relationship between magnetism and electricity.

Again, we find another attempt at a physical or mechanical explanation of the phenomena with Glanvill (1636-1680) who couples a world-soul hypothesis with the observation that "... the agitated parts of the Brain (beget) a motion in the proxime Aether; it is propagated through the liquid medium, as we see the motion which is caus'd by a stone thrown into the water." (Gudas, 1961)

It should be understood that at this time philosophers, who were the true forerunners of the psychologists, were debating the issue of whether a materialist or spiritualist model most accurately accounted for man's behavior and consciousness. The question which was rekindled by Cartesian dualism is still relevant, and is

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still being debated today. It is obvious, even to this author, that
materialistic (matter-energy) models are necessarily incomplete with
respect to our behaviors and our identities. Accordingly, the validity
of the mind-body question is acknowledged, the work of the (?)
philosophers of the post-Renaissance is still relevant today, but we
must pass over the history of philosophy and concentrate on the
history of the physicalist models.

Anton Mesmer (1734-1818) was a Vienese physician who was able
to effect cures both upon psychoneurotic disturbances and physiological
ones by the use of hypnotism, which Mesmer claimed was dependent upon
a phenomena of animal magnetism. His work is very important to the
question of consciousness and control because it stimulated not only
parapsychological inquiry, but stimulated the work of Freud and Jung
into the unconsciousness as well. The issue, then as now, was whether
the cures that Mesmer successfully completed were due to some outside
psychokinetic-like force, that is electromagnetism, or whether they
were due to subliminal suggestions. Obviously the psychosomatic
controversies are raised. Mesmer himself at first used metal bar
magnets to produced his effects, but later recanted from their use
and came to depend solely on his own "animal magnetism." Because of
Mesmer's notoreity a scientific commission was set up in 1784 to
investigate the matter. The commission concluded that Mesmer's
animal magnetism and naturally occuring magnetism (of the lodestone
variety) were not similar phenomena and Mesmer fell into disrepute.

It is about this same time that "animal electricity" is first
observed by Galvani in 1780. He discovered that frog's legs, when
connected to two dissimilar metals, twitched as tho still alive.
Later he created the first "wet battery" by connecting in series a
large number of frog's legs. This was in 1794. It is only later
that Volta creates electricity from an inorganic battery. It is an
oft heard observation that many of man's technological inventions are
but projections of his own biology.

By 1827 Ohm had successfully formulated the laws of simple
electrical circuits, these laws are still in use today. The major
breakthrough in physics of the nineteenth century was the discovery
by Faraday in 1831 that an electrical current could be originated by
moving a wire through a magnetic field. It was the first realization
of the unity of electricity and magnetism. It was only in the next
year that the technology had advanced sufficiently for Morse to
demonstrate telegraphy, whereby coded signals were carried over long
distances by use of cables (transmission line) acting like low
frequency lumped parameter systems.

Of great importance to the present issue is the results of an
experiment carried out by the psychophysicist Helmholtz in 1850.
Before this date the mind-body complex was thought to act together,
simultaneously and instantaneously, at or near the speed of light,
which was then known to be about 300,000 km/sec. The functions of
the nerves were reasonably understood at this time, both anatomically
and psychologically, but it was almost universally assumed that the
nerves, like Morse's cables, transmitted their data at the speed of
light. To his surprise, and many others as well, Helmholtz found
that the speed of nervous propagation was 50 m/sec, not only many
magnitudes slower than light, but even slower than the speed of sound
in air. Now here was a new issue, for man was not only mind and body,
he was also not instantaneous in either his perceptions or his

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BIOPHYSICS                    HISTORY: 1859-1926                    4

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reactions, that is, his control. Darwin's evolutionary theory of
1859 precipitated additional controversy concerning the rise of
mechanistic (materialistic) philosophies of physics, biology and
history. The schism between science and theology is in part re-
sponsible for the founding of the parapsychological and psychical
research societies late nineteenth century.
     Bernstein in 1866 described the nerve impulse as a wave of
negative electricity passing along the fiber. By 1871, he showed
that the impulse spread from the negative inside of the fiber to
positive outside. In addition it was understood at this time that
nerves required a refractory period before being able to fire again.
Neurophysiology by this time had identified specific sensory and
motor neural locations in the brain and central nervous system.
     Maxwell's equations appeared in 1864 leading to the creation
of radio wave frequency electromagnetic radiation in 1888. By 1895
Marconi was able to broadcast and receive over a distance of several
kilometers, and succeeded in transmitting across the Atlantic Ocean
in 1905. Of importance to the biophysical theory of esp is the
appearance in 1900 of Planck's law, which accurately describes
the energy spectra of electromagnetic energies emitted from
an object of a given temperature. For man that temperature is 310°K.
     Sir William Crookes (Rhine, 1934) attempts to explain the
paranormal phenomena "as high frequency vibrations of the other
generated by the molecular action of the brain." (1897) At about
this same time, experimentation based upon Weber's (1834) and
Fechner's (1851) laws of stimulus intensity and the threshold
of sensitivity (S = k log R) confirm the existence of sub-
liminal (below-threshold) sensitivity. Myer's, who coined the word
'telepathy', in part because he had an interest in 'wireless -
telegraphy' also postulated the "subliminal consciousness." Freud
(1899) was interested in how the 'unconsciousness' functioned in
relation to dreams. Although he never acknowledged the phenomena
of precognition, in 1925 Freud accepted the existence of the "so-
called occult sciences." The additional dream work studies of
Jung (1916) and others at this time indicate that the dream is the
most frequent state of consciousness in which psychical phenomena
occur, accounting for two thirds of all spontaneous psi.
     Interestingly enough, that although interest in the psychical,
phenomena, in all its various forms, precedes that historically of
the interest in analytic psychologies by centuries, the 1914-1918
war apparently stimulated, for a brief time, more interest in the
latter than the former.
     Between 1911 and 1926 various radio engineers had found that
the propagation of radio waves was dependent upon many variables,
such as sunspot cycles, the time of the day, the season of the year,
etc. Two of the most important variables in broadcasting are the
frequency of the signal and the condition of the ionosphere at
a given time with respect to that frequency. Theoretical models
and empirical data both confirmed that electromagnetic radiation
intensity at a given distance (length) is a function of the wave-
length, and does not necessarily diminish inversely proportional to
the square of the distance, the optical law for visible light
wavelengths. The numerical measures of attenuation obtained from
the formulas available in 1911 and 1926 do not vary appreciably
from the accepted numerical values used today (1975)

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BIO(?)[illegible] ... Historical(?): 1927-1937

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          Perhaps the first true measurement of the electromagnetic energy
emmitted  by man(?) was made by Cazzamari(?), who starting in 1927 and con-
tinuing to 1941 measured the phenomena. By using a broadband gener-
ator of 60 - 400 Mhz (5.0 - 0.75 meters), he suceeded in resonating
with frequencies in the 3 - 400 Mhz (100 - 0.75 meters) range.  (These
wavelengths include lengths equivlent to average human height. F.B.)
          That electromagnetic energy was possibly the agent of telepathy
was made popular by many writers, including Upton Sinclair who used
the title Mental Radio in his 1929 book recounting his very extensive
telepathic experiments.            The same year saw the announcement
by Berger, that beginning five years before, he had succeeded in measur-
ing the electrical activity of the brain, and had found that fre quenci(?)
of 4 - 20 Hz    characteristic normal behavior, and that certain of
the frequencies corresponded to certain mental states.  In 1941, Dr.
Berger announced his approval that brain waves were telepathy after
remaining hesitant for some years.
          Electromagnetic energy was also being studied with respect to
nerves and neurons at this time.  Beginning with Phillipson in 1920
and continuing till 1938, various neurophysiologists had measured the
capacitance,    resistance (impedance) and   other(?) v(?)  current para-
meters and found that the capacitance and resistance were essentially
constant in their values, and only the voltage varied in the neurons.
Each neuron was considered to behave as a resistance (and later on
impedance) in parallel with a capacitance.
          Beginning in the early thirties Vasileyev began to perform many
short and long distance telepathy and suggestion experiments.  Most
noticeable are the results of an extremely long distance test, 1700
kilometers, in which a subject was lowered into a lead bottle, yet
the percipient was capable of discerning the state of the subject,
who was unconscious.  Vasileyev at the time, 1937, was of the opinion
that electromagnetic radiation was a highly improbable source of
esp phenomena.  He did however note that the metal bottle was not
capable of shielding EM frequences of the cosmic ray range, or of
shielding the frequencies below 10⁵ hz, because of their very long
wavelengths (greater than one kilometer).
          Also very active in this period was Dr. Rhine and his associates.
Rhine coined the phrase extra-sensory perception with a tentative
meaning of 'perception without the function of recognized senses.'
He continues, "esp is apparently independent of recognized energy
forms, non-radiative but projectory. .- all quite non-sensory
characteristics." (Rhine, J.B.(?), 1964, 1934) Rhine also voiced three
objections to the electromagnetic models. First, that electro-
magnetic radiation loses its power, inversely proportional to the
square of the distance. (ibid. pp 158 - 175). Second, he mentions

the problems of selectivity imposed by the problem of everybody
transmitting continuously or simultaneously. Third, the objection
is taken, and well made, that electromagnetism cannot explain the
phenomena of clairvoyance, where obviously their is neither an
image to send, or even an agent to send it. However, Rhine con-
cludes, (pp 216-222) that esp is a biological phenomena, may be
inherited, and 'involves the nervous system quite as much as does
any other cognitive process,.."  In passing, Rhine lumps tele-
pathy, clairvoyance, and precognition into one category, but tele-
kinesis and psychic healing into separate classes.

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BIOPHYSICS                    HISTORY; 1937-1962                    6

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Turylgin, in 1937 had found that human subjects felt drowsy when
exposed to low intensity em waves. Later, in 1942, he experimented
upon the effect of screens and reflectors upon a subject exposed to
hypnotic suggestions concerning sweating. Turlygin found the the
agent was emitting electromagnetic energies of 1.8 - 2.1 mm (1.67 -
1.43 x 10^11 Hz).

An Em theory of psi was proposed by Bibbero, in 1951, hypothesizing
that x-ray, cosmic rays and gamma rays (10^19-10^29 Hz) were re-
sponsible for some of the phenomena. Ruderfer, a year later, suggest-
ed gravity fields and neutrinos were responsible.

Lissman, in 1951, had detected extremely low frequency (3 - 3kHz)
electrical fields emanating from what were considered to be normal,
that is, atypical 'electric fish.'

Neurophysiologist W. Grey Walter commented upon the subject of
Em and esp in 1953. He discounted the em models and provided four
specific objections. First, "we can calculate that they would fall
below noise level within a few millimetres from the surface of the head"
His second thru fourth objections occur in one paragraph:

    "The size of the electrical disturbances which the
    brain creates are extremely small. In fact, they are
    about the size, within the brain itself, of a received
    signal which is just intelligible on an average radio
    set. More crucial even that this, their dominant
    frequencies are far below the range of radio channels,
    below even the scale scale of audible frequencies. At
    ten cycles per second, the average frequency of alpha
    rhythms, any electromagnetic signal transmitted thru
    space would have a wavelength of thirty million metres."
                    Walter, W.G., The Living Brain, 1953, pp 252-3.

It should also be mentioned that Grey noted the lack of the phenomena
to be significantly attenuated either with respect to space distance
and time distance, so he apparently at the time adhered to the ono-
psi phenomena model.

Following his earlier work, Lissman, in 1958 had succeeded in
conditioning fish with currents as low as microvolt per meter( V m-1)
By 1960, based upon the work of Bullock and Hagiwara, a new sense
organ, the electroreceptor, was identified and found to be phylogen-
cally a member of the acoustico-lateralis system. The basic electro-
receptor was similar to the cilia-in-jelly secondary neurons of the
auditory system, which were then thought only for mechanocal and
temperature sensitivity.

Rashevsky (1955) does not state himself directly on the subject,
noting also the obviously non-physical esp phenomena. However, he
completely maps out the necessary physical conditions necessary for
the operation, observation and testing of em psi models. He says,
"Experiments by Edmund Jacobson (1930) indicate that thinking results
in measurable action currents in the external muscles of the body.
Such action currents, small as they are, of necessity create
electromagnetic fields. Unlikely as it is, it is not impossible
that some highly sensitive nerves may respond to these fields."

In 1962 just such an electrosensitive response was observed by
Frey. Using frequencies of 4.10^8- 3.10^9 Hz (1.0m-0.1m)  human
subjects reported a buzzing or clicking sensation, only if the
temporal lobes of the brain were included in the illuminated area.

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Frey hypothesized that the cochlea was involved in the phenomena but
he adds that there is probably more than one electrosensitive site.
Puharich, in Beyond Telepathy, 1962 correlates psi receptive
phenomena with cholinergia and other physiological processes. He
hypothesized that gravity and "psi plasma" were partly responsible for
some of the telepathic phenomena.
Because of the Faraday cage experi-
ments he performed he states, "While the experiments are highly sugges'
ive that electromagnetic radiation is not the means of transmission in
telepathy, they are not means conclusive." He notes that while in the
cage, one subject showed a pronounced gasning effect when 640 Hz ac
was annlied to the cage. With respect to the nerve plasma membrane,
he calculates that the neuron could be considered a circuit of mega-
ohm resistance, micro-farad capacitance and 0.2 henry inductance, the
latter fact first reported in 1941 by Cole and Baker.
The next year, 1963, micro-oersted, 1.0 Hz magnetic fields were
detected emanating from the human heart by Baule and McPhee.
Wooldridge (1963) commented upon the telepathy-emr issue noting
the the difficulty involved was in deciphering brain waves since they
represented the average electrical strength of billions of neurons,
there was no possibility of unraveling the specific thought processes.
It is in 1964 that Mancharski states that telepathic communication
occurred at frequencies from infra-low to super-high (10-3 to 1012 Hz.
Although I have not seen his thesis, the hypothesis out forward in this
monograph perhaps best corresponds to Mancharski's hypothesis.
I. M. Kogan, in 1966, hypothesized that long wave electromagnetic
radiation of 26 km to 960 km wavelength (11,000 to 310 Hz) could ac-
count for the phenomena because at this wavelength the field strength
does not obey the "optical" rule. Based upon calculations, which re-
grettably I have not seen, Kogan indicates that the human organism
generates four to five times the necessary signal strength to accom-
plish very long distance telepathy.
Two prominent parapsychologists, Burt and Dobbs commented on emr
and physical theories of psi in 1967.
Burt announced his opposition
to the emr theories based upon the objections that 1) the inverse
square law diminished the signal strength rapidly, and besides the wav
lengths associated with the brain waves (3-30 Hz) were very (too) long
In addition, 2) he calculates that because the observed change in the
evoked potentials was 5-50 microvolts, the corresponding power was
10-20 watts. To broadcast the observed distances, Burt indicated that
a minimum power of 10 watts would be necessary.
Finally he noted that
some modulation or coding of the signal was also a necessary prerequi-
site.
Dobbs however rejects the validity of the inverse square (optic
rule, based upon the ionospheric effects at ELF frequencies long observ
by radiomen.
However, Dobbs questions the emr theories because the ca.
culated field signal strength at the human scalp was on the order of
10-18
watts.
Kamiya (1968) rejects the emr theories of telepathy of
essentially the same arguments as Burt.
In his Electromagnetic Fields and Life (1968), Presman reviews
the complete history of the studies of sensitivity and emissivity
of electromagnetic radiation by living organisms. He acknowledges
bio-information transfer by emr fields, but is care not to deny the
phenomena while criticizing " the parapsychologists and their methods.
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HISTORY 1969-1976
8
BIOPHYSICS
It is in 1968 that the electromagnetic fields generated by ELF
brain waves are first observed by Cohen. Using a cryomagnetometer
5 cm from the skull coupled with contact EEG electrodes, Cohen found
that the brain emitted Elf as fields of 2.5 . 10-0 gauss, and later work
showed that the skeletal muscles emitted 1 - 100 Hz de fields of
10-7
gauss.
Early in 1975 Persinger hypothesized that the 7.8 Hz frequency
associated with the first earth-ionosphere waveguide resonance is the
primary carrier of telepathy. In addition he hypothesizes that
magnetic fields should inhibit the phenomena, as well as noting some
slight west-east propagation differences.
In addition, Persinger
has done some of the most comprehensive experimentation and research
with respect to the biphysical effects of ELF and VLP electromagnetic
radiation. He reports the ELF brain wave field at 1 - 10 mV. m ==
In mid 1975, Blau calculated the emitted brain wave frequency
field strength as exceeding the microvolt per meter level.
Puthoff and Targ, in work completed in November 1975 and publishe
in March 1976 discuss the ELF-telepathy hypotheses and reject
them
under the considerations then that while the attenuation of the field
strengths over very long distances were very low, ELF could not ac-
count for the precognition experiences recorded in their remote viewin
experiments. Their second objection to ELF/VLF concerned the (reporte
channel capacity of the band as 0.1 bits . sec-1 at meter range distan
ces and 0.001 bit . sec at 4,000 km range.
The above authors apparentl;
adhere to an only-one-psi phenomena, model.
.
0
¢
0
0
Đ
This very brief history of the issue concerning the hypotheses
and counter hypotheses regarding non-precognitive 'psychic' phenomena
is presented an introduction to the question which is discussed in
more detail in this monograph.
Some historical priorities may have
been missed in this introduction but have been corrected in the text.
Our monograph is the collection of the work of many researchers over
many years, the author has merely synthesized it and therefore defers
to all those mentioned herein any claim
to originality or priority.
A
technical abstract of the hypotheses appears on the next two
pages.
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3.
SENSITIVITY AND RESPONSE TO STIMULI
It's various phenomena such as telepathy, clairvoyance and pre-
cognition aro called extra-ponsory porcontions by psychic rosoarchers
primarily in Western Europe and North America, where's the some phe-
nomeno is collod bio-information primarily in Hast Zurono and the
Soviet Union.
In part, the study of the phenomona has beon influenced
by what it has boon called.
Although Purson in 1870 uses the toiminology "extra-sensuous por-
coption ",
its present meaning as popularly understood, is coined by
J? Rhine to describe psychic phenomena as non-sensory and aphysical.
At the time, Rhino included the possibility of the phenomena boing
sonsed by an as yet unknown sensory vercontion; unon other consider-
ations ho rojects any "sixth sonso" hypothoses.
Clearly howovor, before any phenomona may be characterized as
non-sonsory or extre-sonsory,
an examination of sensory porcontion
per se must show that sottory perception is inaodouate. This is very
important since the quotation at the introduction of this monograph
suggests that sensory as well as extra-sensory perceptions appear to
bohovo aliko in the region of marginel sonsitivity. It shall be shown
in this chapter that not only are there several recontore capable of
response to electromagnetic energies, the applications of classical
psychophysics reveal soveral normal modes of sensory percoption which
facilitato the electromagnetic responses.
The relationship botwoon tho intensity of a stimulus and tho
subjective intensity of responce was
initially investigated by Vobor
and Fechner in the ninetoonth century.
In monoral, as expected, the
congation increased as the intensity of the stimulus increased. The
corallary of this lov states that tho just-noticeable-difference in
stimuli was a constant numoricel voluo for a given inout intensity.
(Tober's Law)
(3.1)
(3.2)
S
02
-
k log
( Fechner's Law)
constants
stimulus (Roiz)
liminal value of stimults
sonsation
Careful consideration of the logarithmic rolationshin botwoon
stimulus end ros onso indicates that 1) there is no such phenomena
as a zero-intensity stimulus, and 2 sonsotion below the linon ( thros-
hold) is theoretically possible.
Such sub-conscious as subliminal
conditioning, ar woll as memory of ovonts consciously unattended to
in cassaical psychological fact.
:
5
Fig 2.1 Fochner's Low
3
3
= k log
R
r
a
1
C
-1
-3
-5
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2r
3r
.
whoro
K, a
R
r
AR
R
=
k, ( jnd )

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BIOPHYSICS
GENERAL PERCEPTION
By definition, the roletivo threshold is thet stimulus intensity
which evokes response 50% or more of the time. Similarly, the absoluto
threshold is that stimulus intensity which fails to ovoko response in
99% of the test trials. However, the absoluten ss of those throholds
can be called into question due to a Gaussian distribution of individ-
url's sensitivities. Various studies show that in individuals the
thresholds may vary from as much a 5 to 15 db from the collective
threshold standards.
In passing wo note that the possessor'
somo
perchic abilities are sometimes referred to as "sensitives. . "
In addition to the intensity of a stimulus, the throphold of
sensation is also a function of the duration or novolty of the stim-
ulus.
In general, incro sing the duration of the stimulus lowers tho
threshold for sensation;
however, there is a point, called the theo ...
baso, beyond which increasing the duration lowers the threshold no
further.
The combined offoots of diffe onti 1 sonsitivity and the
duration threshold phonomona rarely contributo however to make more
than 5-15 db goin in sensitivity of any civon individual.
Tho
it .
should be added that that amount of goin is sufficient to make the
diforone: meaningful.
100
Fig 2.2 Typical strongth-
duration curve .
50
m V
OL
0.01
. .......
0.1
1.0
10.0
Timo (mscc)
Rol tive also to the question of sensitivity is tho observation
that the ability to perceive a given cional which is immersod in noise
increases as the square root of the number of observationsof that
signal. Altho this doos not incrosso the threshold of sensitivity
beyond its relative or absolute value, spatial summation, so the
phenomone is called, indicatos thet provided a stimulus is supra-
threshold, the more frequently a phenomena has been observed before,
the ossier it is to detect when imbedded in noise or distortion.
1
(3.3)
whore
Gos
Gog
n
= 10 30810
n
=
Gain in decibels (db) sontil summation
Total number of obporvations
For example, consider that there are 31 million seconds per year.
What is the theoretical g in for spatial summation for a twenty yoar
old. adult for a 10 Hz signal.
(D 3.1)
n
3. 1 . 107
6.2 . 108
CCC
SOC
20 voors
-
yorr
20 years
=
nº
=
=
10_ivoforms
SOC
7.9.104
6. 2.108
x
20 years
= 6.2.109
Waveforms
20 years
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ASICS
GENERAL PERCEPTION
13
Similarly, what is the gnatial summation gain for the same adult
for a 100 Hz signal?
(D 3.2)
6.2. 108
n
=
sec
108
mavoforms/soc =
6.2. 1016
waveforms
nt
2.5. 108.
Gen =
84 db
Da. 3.3 therefore, is one of the oquations which relatos por-
coption to learning.
Rolovent to telopathy, spatial gain allows
the porcontion of signals whon imbedded in noiso duo to crowds or
noise created by netur 1 or artifical signal generators having fiold
strengths substantially greater than that upon the same carrier
frequency.
Spetiel summation thon cets liko memory, and in fact is
ono of tho sub-phonomons which mkos un the general phonomona of
memory.
Therefore, tho throshold of gonsation cannot bo s id bo bo a cut-
and-dried matter of a specific numerical value of stimulus. Por it is
not only truc that the value of the threshold may change dopondent upon
the longth of presentation,
it will vary as well dependent upon the
familiarity gained by previous presentation.
In addition, there are
somo mhonomona which ro porcoived solely bocsuse they reprosont ~
singlo discreto ovont.
Propontation of the same stimuli in a series
sometimes doos not ovoko any response.
Pofore we love this introduction to porcoption nor so, it bcars
repeated emphasis that the whole nature of throsholds and porcoptions
includes the phonomone of subliminal conditioning.
For it is of groot
importance that subconscious responso occurs to subliminal stimuli.
If wo roomombor that the nature of throsholde is often determined by
the vorhel response of a subject, the nature of the throchodd is do-
torminod not by whether or not the subject is offected by the stimulus,
but rathor,
if he is conscious of it. It is now widely accepted that
much of man's behavior is . subconscious, he is not awore gonor lly of
how he does what he does.
Consciousness roprosonto only the tip of
the iceberg. The problems coucos Sorokin to noto that thoro aro two
schools of thought, one that sees consciousness as the master of being,
the other to soo consciousness ra the servant of being.
Lastly, as far as this general introduction to sensation and per-
ception is concerned, it must be noted that altho a given stimulus may
be objectively classified as to some intensity or quality, the nature
of perception is subjective and associative.
For example, in one
recent telepatlly experiment, an image of a farmer with a pitchfork
resembled to the agent who drew it, the mythical figure of "the devil, "
however, the percipient whose culture differed from the agent's had not
in his vocabulary the notion or symbol for "devil, ", but instead re-
ceived the emotional association of something religous, and so drew
instead a figure of opposite meaning, ie, the tablets of Moses, still
however correctly "religous. " (Targ and Puthoff)
Similarly, in a study replic tive of Penfield, Sem-Jacobsen et al
had placed 2652 electrodes in 82 surgical patients over a period of ten
years.
Al tho no response was elicited from 1065 electrodes, about half
of the remaining electrodes (805/1587) produced singular and discrete
responses.
Of interest to us is that of the other half of those elect-
rodes eliciting responses, multiple associations were produced. For
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BIOPHYSICS
CODING
14
example, 104 electrodes elicited visual responses, of which only 42 were
uniquelt visual, the remaining 62 responses were visual, with the follow-
ing multiple associations in order of prevalence; sensory, mood, motor,
vegatative, cardiovascular and consciousness.
Considering the oft men-
tioned importance of imagery in psi phenomena, the oppurtunity for con-
fusion and ambiguity is readily observed. (Sem-Jacobsen and Styri, 1971)
Let us also mention, in passim, the phenomena of paradoxical hot
and paradoxical cold, of which more later.
Therefore, there are four levels of differentiation concerning
this process; first there is sensation, by which we shall mean the object-
ifiable properties of intensity and quality; second there is sensation,
which may be unconscious or conscious; third, there is perception, by
which we mean here, the conscious awareness of sensation; and fourth,
there is interpretation and decoding. of the phenomena.
3.2
SENSORY CODING
Our human bodies are an ensemble of masses and energies, and our
environment is also an ensemble of masses of various qualities and
energies of various frequencies and intensities. Thus we and the universe
are subject to the interactions of masses and energies, according to
the laws of physics.
When we are acted upon by the universe we are im-
bedded in we say that in the environment is an stimulus, which may
produce in us, a sensation, which is not necessarily an awareness.
Through the biological evolution directly dependent unon physical envi-
ronment, generalized and specialized 'recentors' have been created in
organisms, which thru selection allow an organism to appropriately
respond to that environment and survive.
Altho we shall soon discuss the various receptor physiologies and
mechanisms, of supreme importance is that when all the various mechanisms
have done their intermediary functions, what is produced by the sense
receptors is an information or code which is a map of the stimulus that
produced it. What is coded in sensory process is information about
what kind of stimulus is there and how much.
The variable involved in taste and smell is the concentration of
a given ion or molecule, which on the quantum biochemical level is
essentially electronic and therefore a function of some electromagnetic
frequency. In hearing and touching, both 'mechanical' senses there are
two variables, the intensity of the pressure and the frequency of the
chance in that pressure.
Similarly in electrorecption (ELT, temperature
(infra-red
and vision )) the stimulus also varies in intensity and
frequency .
Now, once a stimulus is ouperthreshold, a current is generated in
that recentor, called the generator potential, which is a graded response
to the stimuli. This graded, that is , variable potential is then syn-
apted into the afferent nervous system, whose neurons create an all-or-
none potential of constant voltage, (viz Hodg :ing-Iluxley model ) such
that what is transmitted by the afferent neurons is a code based upon
the frequency of impulses conveyed by the neuron, (and this is supremely
important for the reader's understanding,) and not the voltage of that
impulse.
(Ve mention this for the variable voltages seen in brain-
wave potentials is the statistical summation of the constant potential
of a varving number of cortical and inter-neurons. )
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BIOTAYSICS
CODING
15
Of the approximately ten to twenty billion neurons in the human
body, only about C.1 billion are afferent sensory neurons capable of
producing
graded generator potentials. The two primary sources of
human bio-information are vision, which is electromagnetic radiation
between the frequencies of 4 - 7 x 1014 Hz, and audition, which is
mechanical oscillations between 30 Hz and 24,000 Hz. The nature of
neuronal response is such that most nerves are tuned, eith widely or
narrowly to a specific frequency, such that when a neuron is activated
the specificity of the neurons automatically, and usually, uniquely
is addressed with a specific band of frequencies, such that the'
message encoded is the intensity of the stimulus acting upon the al-
ready frequency-specific neuron.
In addition, the brain, where the afferent signals have their
destination, is arranged tonotonically; that is, a specific frequency
( tono) is located in only certain allowable structures of spaces (topo
in the brain. Several such tonotopic mappings hace been observed, as
for instance the cochlear nerve, and the central auditory analyzer
in the ectosylyjan gyrus.
See fig. 3.3
in KHz
f in kHz
1
mes
0-14 db
1
8
mm
10.2
14.0/
22.0
16.0
14.5
29.5
/4.5
pes
Now, altho the frequencies of the auditory and visual stimuli
are respecticely in the KHz and 100 THz ranges, the frequencies at
which both the generator and action potentials operates are tens to
billions of times less frequent than the input stimuli. Thus, the
generator potentials, which may be added together, have no refractory
period, but a spike duration of 1-2 msec is de facto limited to firing
frequencies no greater than 500 to 1000 Hz.
Similarly, the constant
voltage action potentials have refractory periods of about 1 msec and
so are also limited to firing frequencies below 1000 Hz.
Since, as we shall show later (Cf ch 5), that neurons firing
below gay 500 to 250 Hz do so with inductive reactance, ELF electro-
magnetic fields are created. Of importance to our study of conscious-
ness and telepathy, practically all sensory information is created into
frequencies in the ELF range.
The nature of sensory transduction is this: a stimulus of a givel
intensity acte
upon an afferent nerve, which is a membrance which
conducts ions.
The larger the intensity of the stimulus, the greater
is the membrance area activated, and since this means a larger flow
of ions and electrons thru that membrance, this determines the amo-
litude of the the gene ator potential. The amplitude of the generator
potential, once synapted (either excitory or inhibitory ), determines
the frequency of the action potentials.
See fig 7.4 below
peak
100
output 80
amplitude
of the
generator
freq.
impulses
per
potential
sec
40
0
0
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Potential
m V
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5-30 db
-
10-60 cb
20-80 db
Sylvian
gyrus
8
aos

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BIOFBYSICS
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16
Investiontions have been made relating the intensi'y of the in-
put stimuli to the frequency output for all of the sense modalities.
Stevens hypothesizes that the sensory transduction process follows a
poter law,
ie
=
ax" ¥ b
3.4
where
fo
fo
output frequency
axn
dynamic discharge response to stimulus
-
static discharge rate.
Then 3.4 is rewritten,
we see that this is simply a form of
log fo = (n log x + log a) + b
3.5
the Weber-Fechner laws relating sensation to stimulus, except here
the relationship in the frequency of neuronal output to the stimulus
intensity.
Altho most transduction processes follow the power law
over a certain range of input stimuli,
it has been hypothesized
(Linetz) that the transduction process is better descrived by
Io =
tanh x
(hyperbolic tangent)
3.6
Since, as we shall show, the greatest majority of output fre-
muencies are betywen 0. 01 Hz and 500 Hz, some mechanism must provide
discrimination for all the messages crowding this given band, which
because of the extremely low frequencies, have a limited channel
capacity.
In mort this identification comes from the exponent which
is generally unique for a given sense modality. Of importance is that
these exponents exhibit values generally indicativo
of the oft
A
observed property of differences due to organism individuality.
corallary to this would be that there is probably no universally
compilable frequency or waveform dictionary. for come phenomena.
Table 3.1 is an arrangement of the various observed power l" w
exponents no compiled by Stevons and by Livetz from a large number of
investigations completed on the average, since 1965.
TABLE 3.1 - Power Law Exponents
0.10 - 0.18
Vertex potential
1.0
Cold on arm
0.21
light intensity av.
1.0
Visual length
cortical potentials
1.05
Sucrose -av. of 14 subj.
0.33
Brightness 5° target
1.11
1.97 Salt
0.52
Av. cort. not. 200 Hz
1.1
White noise duration
vibration on finger
1.1
Vocal effort sound pressure
0.62
Same as above, 50 Hz
1.1
Static pressure on skin
0.6
Smell - hentane
0.67
Depolarization current
1.3
Finger span
optic nerve at 550 nm
1.45
Heaviness- lifted weights
O.
715 Intensity - licht
.735
Intensity - 680 nm
1.5
Tactual roughness
0.8
"actual hardness
1.7
Force of hand grin
0.85
Citric acid one subject
0.89
Illumination
3.5
Electric shock- current
0.975 Light intensity 620 nm
through fingers
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0.7
Projected visual area
1.47
Citric acid ono subject
1.5
Temperature-warmth on arm
0.67
Loudness 3000 Hz tone
1.20
Depolarizing current for
630 nm

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COD ING
17
Although the maximum firing rate of a given sensory afferent or
motor efferent neuron is limited to frequencies (usually) below 1000 H:
either because of refractory period or spike duration, it is also
understood that stimuli change rapidly, so that the actual signal is
usually limited to only a limited number of waveforms in any given time
interval.
The various coding/transducing processes provide several
different modes wherein the frequency of neural discharges provide
unique and unambiguous information about the stimulus. For example
in phase coders (T-type ) or latency-burst dispersion coders (D type) ,
a given neurons' output frequency is relatively constant over any giver
long duration, lets say 120 impulses per second. The coding occurs by
the mechanism that the discharges vary from their normal interspike
interval by only a few tenths of a milli-second, the information thus
being a code based upon the phase or earliness-lateness of a given spil
with respect the the average interspike duration.
Bullock, from who
the above coding schema are credited indicates that at least two
additional codings occur: one, a probability coder (P-type ) which
produces spikes in a quasi-chance manner, and two, a burst coder (B-tyr
which produces spikes in clusters of varying number. (Szabo and Fessard
Once a stimulus is superthreshold, a signal proceeds into the
brain structures by various multiply-synapted afferent pathways. Once
in the appropriate cerebral structure the incoming information is
processed in masse, producing the phenomena of averaged cortical
responses.
It has been shown that these average cortical potentialo
have almost uniquo waveforms for the given sensory input. The average
potential's voltage amplitudes vary unon the mechanism of whether or
not the appropriate neurons fire in phase.
When neurons of a givon
constant voltage and given output frequency discharge, amplitude
modulation (ie of voltage) is a function of the phase differences
between those neurons.
For example, in a neuron firing at 60 Hz, there is one spike
every 1/60 of a sec, or 0,0167 sec. If another neuron, regardless of
its output frequency delivers to some cortical structure an impulse
that arrives simultaneously with the above 60 Hz frequency, the two
waveforms, much like oceanic tides, crest together, ampliflying the
voltage of the thus averaged cortical response. However, should the
two (or three, or n) signals be out of phase, varying degrees of
additive or subtroctive construction will occur in voltage amplitude.
Consider then that the message or meaning (not the information
as we shall later specify) is function of several factors: the sensory
out-put frequency, all usually under 1000 Hz; the power law functions
of the modalities, which discriminates but their rate of change, (that
is growth ) the modality; and the amplitude of the averaged cortical
responses, a function of the phase of the incoming frequencies.
The following is then very illuminating. Amplitude modulation ( Al
is a function of phase. However, the time rate of change of phase,
that is its first derivatioe, is degrees per second, that is frequency.
Now, in addition, the waveforms are transient, growing and diminishing
rapidly, and the frequency also changes with respect to time and the
first derivative of frequency is change of freuency per timo, or as
we know it, frequency modulation (TM) .
Therefore, the 'message' is
a function of phase, the first derivative of obase, which is frequency
and the second derivative of phase, which is frequency modulation.
2
Message
-
o
+
±
€
Δτ
2
AT
( AM )
(FREQ.)
(FM)
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For the sake of simplicity, the coefficients have been eliminated
from Eo. 3.7
but it should be understood that in any given 'message'
the coefficient of any term may be roro, limiting that mo sage' to only
one or two of the possible three components.
All of the sensory codings we have soon, or shall see, are some
variatiation upon frequency coding, yet there is another aspect to thor
codings which illumincta the nature of perception most poignantly.
Most of the coding we shall examine are continuous, that is they may
have any value from the minimum to the maximum for that given sensory
modality, except those of olfaction, and perhaps some others that have
not yet Been investigated.
Hughes et al implanted electrodes into 23 patients during ortho
neurosurgery. Standardizod atmospheric solutions of various odorantu
vere administered to the patients and responses were recorded from the
olfactory bulb, and amygdala of the conscious subjects. The results
can only bo described as revolutionary, for what Hughes and his co-
workers bad found was that odor qualities were recorded into specific,
that is discrete frequencies, rather than a wide band of frequencies.
Altho nome of the lines responded to more than one stimulant, it could
be said in general that only very specific frequencies were allocated
for vory specific odorant qualities, the result being that some songor:
coding was an accurate and as specific as emission or absorption lines
from stellar spectra. Here it can be said io cpec : fic evidence for
a dictionary- like frequency code of sensation.
Table 3.2 lists the
maior frequoney components in c clos per second, in a human olfactory
bulb. (J.R. Hughes, et al)
Table 3.2
Olfactory spectral Linos
Odorant
Menthone
30.3
46.0
51.6
57.3
Pennermint
25.8
30.3
51.6
53.3
65.9 68.5
Eugenol
26.4 30.3
50.6 51.6
additional common linos occur at 70.8, 72.9, 73.9, 75.8
and 79.9, with components higher than 140 IIz being very rare.
Let us conclude this section on sensory coding by showing two
diagrams.
The first, figure #3.5
shows the output frequency of bone
joint position recentors, and the second, shows the output frequency
of a muscle stretch recentor. Although the reader is asked to verify,
as we shall lator show, that audition and vision output frequencies
do not exceed 500 Iz, the following diagrams are added evidence that
no sensory output froquency exceeds 500 Hz.
Bone joint recentor
impulses
100
ner
second
30
per
second
20
50
10
100
150º 180º
-0.5.
0
0.5
1.0
Joint position
load in grams
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Muscle load receptor
imnulses

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BIOPHYSICS
ELECTRORECEPTORS
19
3.3
Electroreceptors and the Acoustico-lateralis System.
Although it is popularly accepted that there are five senses,
ie. smell, taste, touch, audition and vision, recent physiological
work has identified many additional sense modalities, including pain,
carbon-dioxide and specialized electroreceptors. Of interest to the
topic of sensation and perception is the fact that a given physiologic
identified sense organ may respond to more than one input sense modal ...
ity.
For instance, pressing the eye lightly creatos visual 'phosphene
images, whereas certain pain and thermal receptors in the skin respond
as well to pressure.
Additionally, pain may be perceived by injury
in areas in the skin which are not innervatod by either touch, pain or
thermal receptors.
In this section we shall demonstrate the existence of specialized
electroreceptors, but it is our additional thesis that all neurons and
some synapses are electrosensitive.
Consider, for instance that that
which we call taste and smell is really a function of given concentrat-
ions of ions, which themselves are electrical charges of specific
polarity (valence ) and frequency.
Similarly, that which we call hear-
when a mechanical vibration acts upon the cilia in the
ing occurs
.
organ of Corti, it is the stress-strain mechanical energies of the
cilia which croate heat (infra-red ) which stimulates the auditory
neurons; the specific mechanism is called piezoelectric. Thermal
receptors respond to "heat", but that which we call "heat" is specific-
ally infra-red electromagnetic radiation. Finally we shall not belabor
the point that vision is the response to electromagnetic radiation
in the "visible-light" frequencies.
The specific electro-receptor organs as described forewith are
all revealed from research in ordinary and electro-sensitive fish.
However, since our thesis is specifically electromagnetic recoption
in the ELF bands and the 25m to m band, the roador shall keep in mind
that these electroreceptors are part of the acoustico-lateralis system,
of which the cochlea and semi-circular canals in man have evolved,
and also closely resembles the "acupuncture point system" both shown
to be electrosensitive.
Leydig in 1851 had studied the lateralis system and concluded a
sensory function for the organs. Later, Schulze, in 1861, had hypo-
thesized that the cupulao of the system were stimulated by 1) water
movements directed against the fish or amphibian, and 2), low frequency
vibrations (sound ) in the water.
Sand, in 1938 demonstrated that the
ampullae (of Lorenzini ) were infra-red sensitive.
In 1955 Hensel
confirmed Sand's work and extended it to show the similarity with
mammalian thermo-receptors.
Lissmann, in 1951, had discovered a low voltage 0-330 Hz steady
discharge from electric organs, and later suceeded in conditioning
a specios of fish to microvolt ELF fields. Bullock et al, in 1961
hypothesized that the specialized electro-receptor organs were derivati
of the lateral line sense organs. (FESSARD, 1974, ed. )
The specialized lateral line organs of which we shall soon speak
occur in lintegration with the ordinary lateral line systems, that is,
not in substitution.
It should be mentioned that species not contain-
ing the SLLO rosnonded to electrical fields of mV intensity in the ELF
range.
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There are three basic types of lateral line organs.
The first
are the ordinary LLO, second and first order neurons canned with micro-
villi, in general only mechanically sensitive, however, still piezo-
electric.
Ampullae, viz ampullae of lorenzini, are canals, usually 1cm long
by Imm in diameter, filled with an acidic mucopolysaccharide, and are
directly connected to the epithelial layers. The wall resistance of
the canal ic 6M 2 'cm2, with a capacitance of 0. 4 -0.8 UF . cm-2
The
jelley however, has a resistivity of 25-31 Q.cm, and a composition that
varios somewhat spatially, but in general is, in mM.kg -- H20, Na( 2) 445
Ca(2) and Mg(2) 50, Cl(-1) 580, K(1) 12.5, and urca 75 (MURRAY)
The ampullae occur in many varieites of fish and amphibia,
In
general the end organ is 10-15 um in diamter, with
groups or clust
ers of 10-50 ampullae per organ. The density of the organs range from
12-80 . mm-(
and may number a total of 40,000 in any given specios.
Of specific interest to us is that the ampullae respond to field streng
of 1-15 w.m -- if and only iff the input frequencies are low, that is
in general, less than 300 Hz, and most often, less than 50 Hz.
The third type of lateral line organ is called tuberous, and is
found only in weakly electric fish.
The tuberii are located in invag-
inations below the epithelius
and surrounded by supportive cells. The
tuberii responded to fields of 4-20 WV.m-l of high frequency, usually
up to 1000 Hz, specifically synchronous with the electric organ dis-
charge of that fish or of electric fish of the game specie.
Figure 3.6 shows the comparative physiology of the three receptor
organs.
Ordinary lateral ling electro-receptors are innorvated by an
efferent neuron, the ampuallae and tuborii are not.
a COCHLEA
AMPULLAE
1
afferent
efferent
TUBERII
Specific electro-sensitivity was demonstrated by Dijkgraaf and
Kalmijn (1963, 1966, 1971) in a series of experiments emphasizingboth
electrolocation and conditioning stimuli phenomena.
At first they
noticed that dogfish responded to a 5 Hz 10-5 V.m-l field by a twitchin
of the eyelids, interestingly enough, when the dogfish were drowsy.
( Altered States' researchers, take note! ) Later they noticed that when
the ECG was monitored, the heart rato slowed from 1 Hz to 0.7 Hz when
stimulated by 10-6 V.m-1 fields. Lato in 1965 dogfish wore trained to
seek food with a 4x10-5 V.m-l field.
In all cases, the responses to
stimulii or conditioning ceased when the amnullary nervos were sectione
even when the field strength was raised 30 db (1000 X) .
In addition
it was noticed that the dogfish naturally avoided areas where the field
strength was 1- 0.1 mV.m-1.
Three types of responses to E fields were noticed.
The first
reaction was a, twitching of the body or appondage, usually in response
to 10 - 1 V.m"-fields, but sometimes as low as 10-2 V.m-L.
The second
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response type is galvanotaxis, a turning into or pornondicular to the
field.
The third response tyno is galvano-narcosis, an
immobilisation
of the toot subject.
Final proof of specific electrosensitivity was provided by Kalmij.
who sequesterod a flatfish 'prey' in sand, and with
other controls
excluded visual, mechanical or chemical clues, yet the sharks and rays
were able to locate the flatfish.
Extra weight is added to the oviden:
when an artifical current similar to that of the flatfish produced the
same location results.
Figure 3. 7 below is an adaptation of Table2 ( in Kalmijn (1974),
which plots tho olectrosensitivities of the various specios tested by
numerous authors. Two types of electrical energy paramotors
wore
present at the time of testing, one being field strength, in volts por
meter (V.m-1) and the other being current density in amperes per centi-
meter squared ( A . cm-2) .
Curve fitting reveals that the relation be-
tween the two threshold parameter is
(3.8 )
log V.m-1 1= log A. En-2
5.0
Figure 3.8 below shows that in sharks and rays, generally consider
weakly electro sensitive, the relation between current density and in -
put frequency reveals that the threshold increases as the frequency
increases, a relation which is also observed in man (Cf. 3.6 - 3.9).
0
log:
Volts per_2
meter
.
-4
-6
-8
-12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2
10g10
amperes per centimeter squared
Although specific electroreception has been demonstrated by Liss-
mann, Bullock, Kalmijn and others, of specific interest to us is that
the ampullae have been demonstrated to be widely receptivo to other
electrical and para-electrical phenomena. The reader is requested to
study the following closely, for what has been demonstrated in the
ampullae of fish has also beon observed in man, that is both wide and
n irrow electro-response.
Here the work is primarily due to Murray, specifically on the
ampullac of Lorenzini.
Our interest in this organ is due to the fact
that it is widely distributed in vertabrates, and its response to
electrostimuli is a tonic, that is frequency coded message, whereas
the tuborii, found only in fish poscessing EOD, rognonded with phasic,
burst-dispersivo andtonic-phasic codings.
Figures 3.9a to 3.9b
below show the following responses of a
single unit of amnullao.
In 3.9a the input parameter is voltage and
polarity. Notice that the organ has a discherge rate of about 30 Hz,
and the output frequency therefore codes polarity and intensity.
Notic
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ELECTRORECEPTORS
22
also the
output frequencies in all cases are in the ELF range (3 -
3 kHz). Figure #3.10 shows the response of the same unit to temperatu:
(infra-red ) ,
while figures 3.11 abc record the response to prossupo
and touch (viz the piezoelectric effect), and finally, figure 3. 12
reveals the response of an ampullary organ to the application of a
sea water solution of various salinitios. (It should be noticed that
the average concentration of the neural solutions are two to three tim
that of sea water. } Again, what is most important hore is the wide
range of electro-sensitivities of the ampullary organs.
Fig. 3.9 Response to electrical stimuli
outout
100
frequency
impulses
75
ner
second
50
25
0
5
0
5
10
15
20
25
anodal
cathodal
stimulus in
microvolts
Fig. 3.10
Temperature
Fig 3.11
Pressure : differential
40
16.5℃
40
impulses
1
16.0℃
per
second
/
imp. 30
20
20
10
10
0
i
0
10
1
2 3
4 min
0
50
100
cm Hg
Time
Fig. 312
Salinity
Change
30
of
20
frequency
in
10
impulses
0
per
second
(ie Hz)
-10
-20
-30
80
90
100
110
120
% Sea water
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Returning to specific electrorecoption, it was observed that
stimuli of duration O.1 to 1.0 seconds were mosteffective in oliciting
electroresponse. Waveforms of the above durations are equivalent to
10 Hz to 1.0 Hz frequencies.
Also obcorved
was the phonomona that
stimuli that were either too brief, or sustained for too long were los
effective in producing electroresponse. Along the same line, it was
shown that stimuli that were either amplitude modulated or frequency
modulated gave response when the field strengths were as low as
10 uV.m -¿ The most effective frequency of frequency modulation was
3 Hz. Let the reader remember this, for in the next section, (on
audition ), it will be shown the the auditory sense, again, histologica
derived from the LLO also demonstrates a propensity to soloctivly
respond to certain stimuli, if and only if that stimuli is cither
amplitude or frequency modulated.
In addition to the above electroreceptivo characteristico, a
phonomona of value "o tho biofeedback researches occurs when two
olectrosensitive species with electric organ discharges ( EOD ) were
connected with contact electrodes.
It was observed that when the two
fish of the same specie, each with the same basic EOD frequency, were
connected, both fish were observed to change their EOD in such a manne:
to produce dissimilar, that is divergent EOD. Scheich and Bullock
indicate that this "jamming avoidance response" occurs so that each
fish can discriminato its own noural patterns, such that confusion,
and therefore loos self control may be avoided. This JAR accurs only
if the EOD''s are within 15-20 Hz of cach fish' own EOD, and is most
pronounced whon the difference is 3-5 Hz. This is related to the
FM respondo to 3 Hz, cinco two fish within 3-5 Hz of each other will
produce high amplitude 3-5 Hz modulation of cach others EOD.
The phenomona of electroreception has boon studiod by the various
psychologists, physiologists and biologists, who doom the phonomona
as necessary for the survival of the aquarie specios observed. Thoy
call the phonomona electrolocation and electrocommunication, yet a
perusal of their bibligraphies indicate that none has cited or studied
the biophysical or parapsychological literatures, and their conclusion
were thus reached independently.
In electrolocation, for example, in Eigenmannia, the males' basic
frequency was 250-600 Hz, whereas the females' was 340-560 Hz. Similar:
an adversary or proy may be located at a distance thru olectroreceptio:
Again, certain curront voleocities in the oceans or streams con-
thin specific life forms, and it has been demonstrated that sonsitivit
to current volocities as low as 2.5x 105m . sec-loxist.
Another report
indicates that 10">
m . soc"
may be used an a conditioning stimulus.
In a similar study, a 2 um vibration at 15 Hz resulted in a 50 Hz sign
( Schwartz).
The amnullary organs, specifically electrorceptive, have been
shown to have evolved indpendently in several species of vortabrates.
And, altho the LLO are found only in water dwelloro, evolution has
produced two organs specifically derived from the LLO.
At ono time,
olfaction, vision, and cortain cranial nerves were part of the Lateral.
: ystems.
In man, tho vestibular canals (not uncoincidentally named
Ambullae by anatomists), and the cochlea are directly descended by
amphibial ILO. In the next section we shall show the very close
similarity between the electrorecentive ampullary organs in water
dwellers, and the acoustico-cloetro roooptive vestibular and cochlear
organs in mon.
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3.4
AUDITION and MECHANO-RECEPTION
Recalling that J. Rhine has indicated that GESP is ultimately
processed thru the central norvous system and that the acoustico-
lateralis system processes some electro-rocontion, it bohooves us to
study audition and the mechano-reoptive functions, for it will be shown
that there are generalized responses applicable to all sensory modaliti
The sensitivity to sound is in fact the sensitivity to mochanical
vibrations set up in the atmosphere. The inner ear is the site of this
acoustico-mechanical reception, and those familiar with audition know
that the mechanical vibrations set up are relayed to the inner ear by
& Skin-like membrane, the tympanus, and then thru three small bonos,
the mallous, the incus, and the stapes to
the inner ear which contains
both the semicircular canals and the cochlea, both of which innervato
the eighth cranial nervo.
It has been shown by von Bokesy, who won the
Nobel Prize for his work, that the process of audition includes that
of bone conduction as well as the response of the whole body to mechanc
vibrations.
And altho audition is a specialzed sonse soquestorod from
spurious vibrations, we shall show later how the whole organ of the ski
is a kind of mechano-receptor, the results applicable to "dormo-optics.
In addition, the skin is the site of contact electro-reception, and
it shall be shown the similarities between these various senso modalitic
Specifically, the organ of audition is the organ of Corti located
in the center of the cochlear spirals. The Organ of Corti is a layer
of hair colls connected tothe basilar membrane which connects directly
to the eighth nervo.
Thoro are about 15,000 hair colls on the basilar
mombrano and a total of about 15,000 neuron fibros in the coclear nerve
These hair cells rango in size from about 130 um, which are high froque
cy responsive, to 275 im, which are low frequency responsive. Of un-
usual interest is that thesc nerve fibres have afferent nerve onding,
tho there is no motor function to be found, and in addition the potenti
across the hair colls in the organ of Corti is about 140 mV.
Since
these cells are approximatoly 140 um in longth, the field strongth
represented in the organ of Corti is:
3.9
E =
dV .ds-1
11
1.4 . 10-ly
1.4 . 104 m
1.0 . 103
V. m-l
The hair cells in tho organ of Corti relay the mechanical vibratic
got up upon thom from the stress-strain reactions caused by their bond:
a hoat set off by the friction then stimulates, thru this piezooloctric
procoss, the generator potentials. Of interest is that, un to 60 Hz,
the output frequency response is an exact match of the input frequency
response. Above this frequency specialized areas in the cochlea at
specific distance from the stapes produce complex volleys responsible
for audition at these frequencies. In addition, the three semi-
circular conals, which resemble three mutally pendicular half-loop
antonnoe, are also innervated by cupulae and microvilli which also
respond in piezoelectric procoss to mechanical bonding sot up by change
in velocity and acceleration.
These semicircular canals are about
1 cm in heighth, and thus may provide electrorocption forn EMR in
this wavelength.
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AUDITION
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Our intorost in audition stems from that conso modalitios'relatio
shin to the lato alis system, but also from the fact that audition is
& sonse modality concerned with the frequency and the intensity of
the inpinging stimuli.
Altho the onergy intensity by which audition
is measured is usually Watts por centimeter squared (W . cm-2) , the
various onorgy dimensions are interchangeable, like motors into foot,
and it
be directly shown that tho electro-sonsitivty threshold
may be computed directly from the audition thresholds. (Cf 3.5 )
Since, as we have indicated, that audition is a skin membrane,
bono conduction phenomena, and that there exist several formulao re-
lating skin area to height and mass, and the proportion of bone mass
to total organism macs, it is not surprising that a mathematical relat
ion chip exists betwoon auditory thresholds and physical body moasurom
monto.
Masterson and Diamond havo empirically produced the following
relationships, Eq. 3.
shows that the lowest frequency responded to
is related to body mass, and that in addition, the high frequency
threshold is a mathematical function of the low frequency cutoff
threshold.
3.10
log
flow
+
10gmass
=
2.5
(kg)
3.11
£high =
20 kHz x log flow
Other physiological aspects of audition illuminate processos
relevant to extra, or as ono professional calls it, expanded sonsory
porception. Von Bekosy studied the auditory thresholds with
respect
to three variables; heredity, age, and real time. He found for instan
that the audiograms of members within a family were significantly
similar, whoreas an audiogram of someone not in that family differed
as well significantly. Viz, a proof of the heredity of sensory and
perceptual abilities and responses.
In addition it was found that
with increasing age, the ability to perceive sound frequencies and
intensitios was attenuated at the high frequency response band, but
was basically unchanged at the low frequency end of the acoustical
spectrum. Of very specific interest to perception was von Bokesey's
observation of the following.
Audiograms were made of subjects'
threshold sensitivities at two frequencies, 200 Hz and 1000 Hz, and
observed for a duration of twenty minutes. It was found that the thro
holds varied 5 to 15 db with periodicities of 8 minutes for the former
and 64 minutes for the latter.
It would prove to be highly illumin-
ating to discern if cach frequency had its own periodicity of thres-
hold sensitivy, for in addition, periods of 8 minutos and 62 minutes
are in effect frequencies of 1/480 seconds and 1/390 seconds, and it
is well demonstrated that higher frequencies are harmonics of lower .
frequencies, and we may summize ultra-low frequency modulation or
driving of higher frequency acoustico-mechano-electro-sensitivities.
In this section we shall observe the various response character-
istics of the auditory system in order to establish the limits of the
energy perceived.
It has been adopted as convention that the root-
moan-square threshold for audition is 0.0002 dynos. cm-2 at 2000 Hz,
the foquoncy of highest sensitivity. However, von Bekesy has observed
sensitivity thresholds of 0.00005 dynes. cm-2 at 2200 Hz. Therefore,
while we shall discuss standard auditory thresholds, but again the
reador is coutioned that the demonstrated human perception thresholds
may vary as much as 5 to 15 db below the 50% population standard
threshold.
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Like the electroreceptive sonsos (ELF, infra-red, and vision) ,
audition is orgotonic, that is, its sensitivity of energy (orgo) is
a function of the frequency ( tono) of the imoinging stimuli. Also,
liko the electroreceptive senses, audition shows the property of
excitory and inhibitory responde.
That is, most neurons have a base,
that is lo static discharge rato, so that, while somo stimuli cause an
increase in the neural discharge rates, somo stimuli cause an inhibiti(
that is decrease of the static discharge rate. This is a very inter-
esting aspect of sensation and perception, for the percipiont must be
aware that the information is "the absence of information, ", or to put
it crudely, the porciniont is required to be aware not of the donut,
but the hole.
Figure 3.13 below is the oft roarduced and now standard auditory
intensity-frequency responso chart. The sound pressure level is given
in dynos . cm-2
and Joules per square motor per second on the left hand
ordinato and (tentatively) Volts por meter por square root of the frequ-
nocy ( V.m-1Hz-2) on the right. It is conveniont to use J.m-2 coc-1
rather than Watts. cm-2 because we should like to be able to calculate
the energy in a given frequency waveform.
( See the next section for
conversion factors. )
Figure 3.13
Auditory frequency-energy threshold responses
pain
0
1
thunder
6
!
-
2
6.6
symphor
4
-
4
4.6
traffic
1
6
2.6
convert
1
1
- 8
1
0.6
0
10
-10
-1.4
response
-12
inhibitory_3.4
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000 Hz
)
dynos
cm 2
1og
Joules
frequency (Hz)
log V
experi
m - . Soc
Additional evidence for tho coding of sensory information into the
ELF band can be seen in Figure 3.14 below, which charts the frequency
of the neural impulsos in response to a given stimulus intensity input
for nourons with frequency-specific responsos.
Notice that the hyper-
bolic tangent (tanh x) growth rate saturates at about 450 Hz.
nerve
impulses 500
per
second
400
300
5600
1050
22,700 Hz.
200
100
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-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
log J.m-2 soc-1
10
102
-
-
1
1
1
1
1
-2
1
10-4
1
10