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sentation is attractive and largely free from typographical errors. There is
a combined subject and name index; this seems to be less detailed than it
could be, particularly in regard to the indexing of authors. These reserva-
tions notwithstanding, Wings of Illusion is highly recommended.
REFERENCES
ARGYLE, M., & BEIT-HALLAHMI, B. (1975). The Social Psychology of
Religion (rev. ed.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
BERGIN, A. E. (1983). Religiosity and mental health: A critical reevalu-
ation and meta-analysis. Professional Psychology: Research & Prac-
tice, 14, 170-184.
GORSUCH, R. L. (1988). Psychology of religion. Annual Review of Psy-
chology, 39, 201-221.
IRWIN, H. J. (1991). A study of paranormal belief, psychological adjust-
ment and fantasy proneness. Journal of the American Society for Psy-
chical Research, 85, 317-331.
ROSENBERG, M. (1979). Conceiving the Self. New York: Basic Books.
SANUA, V. D. (1969). Religion, mental health, and personality: A review
of empirical studies. In H. N. Malony (Ed.), Current Perspectives in the
Psychology of Religion (pp. 173-190). Grand Rapids, MI: W. B.
Eerdmans.
SCHUMAKER, J. F. (1987). Mental health, belief deficit compensation, and
paranormal beliefs. Journal of Psychology, 121, 451-457.
TAYLOR, S. E., & BROWN, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social
psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin,
103, 193-210.
TRIGG, R. (1985). Understanding Social Science: A Philosophical Intro-
duction to the Social Sciences. Oxford: Blackwell.
HARVEY J. IRWIN
Department of Psychology
University of New England
Armidale NSW 2351
Australia
HISTORIA DE LA PARAPSICOLOGÍA EN LA ARGENTINA [THE
HISTORY OF PARAPSYCHOLOGY IN THE ARGENTINEJ. By Ale-
jandro Parra. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Author, 1990. Pp. 91. [Avail-
able from author at Muñiz 539, Segundo Piso, Departamento A, Buenos
Aires, Argentina.] $10.00, paper.
The parapsychological literature is basically an English-language liter-
ature. In part, this is justifiable because most of the rigorous experimental
Reviews of Scholarly Books
and nonexperimental research has been carried out either in English-
speaking countries or in countries where the authors have a command of
English fluent enough to place their articles in the major parapsychological
journals. In addition, these countries represent the industrial, technologi-
cal, "developed" nations where at least a few people have enough job
security to pursue parapsychological interests on either a part-time or full-
time basis. However, some key parapsychological research studies have
been carried out in non-English speaking and/or "developing" countries as
well. In addition, historians of parapsychology need information about the
worldwide development of the field. Therefore, Alejandro Parra's com-
prehensive survey of Argentine parapsychology comes as a pleasant -- and
important-surprise.
The History of Parapsychology in the Argentine serves three key func-
tions. It surveys the history of Argentine parapsychology; it discusses the
social milieu in which Argentine parapsychology developed; and it under-
scores key investigators and their findings.
Parra divides his historical survey into four general periods: spiritism
(1869-1896), mesmerism (1896-1924), "metapsychics" (which can be
translated as "psychical studies") (1924-1953), and parapsychology (be-
ginning about 1953). The parapsychological era has three subdivisions:
parapsychology in private institutions (1953-1960), in university settings
(1960-1970), and in various settings outside of universities (beginning
about 1970).
Parra claims that there were two subdivisions in the spiritism era: 1869
to 1877 and 1877 to 1896. The first phase was marked by the impact of
Allan Kardec's writings, which made an even greater impression in neigh-
boring Brazil. Kardec was a French educator whose best known works,
The Spirit's Book and The Medium's Book, provided a world view as well
as a pair of manuals for "spiritists" (a term that was coined to distinguish
them from the "spiritualists" operating in the United States). Spiritism
was highly organized by 1877 and eventually registered some 15,000
followers. But an Argentine Society of Magnetism was formed in 1896,
which sponsored research on purported psychic phenomena produced by
the "magnetic passes" developed by another French practitioner-Franz
Anton Mesmer. The society had its own laboratory and eventually meta-
morphosized into the Scientific Society of Psychic Studies (i.e., "Meta-
psychics"), which began to interfere with the European psychical research
societies. "Psychic photography" was scrutinized in the first decade of the
1900s, as were physical mediumship and telepathic communication.
From a sociological point of view, Western European movements, es-
pecially those of France, strongly influenced various aspects of Argentine
life. Another organization, the Scientific Society for Psychical Studies,
was established in 1912 with the French Nobel laureate (and psychical
researcher) Charles Richet as honorary president. According to Parra,
Richet used the term "metapsychics" or "psychical studies" to refer to
"the science that studies phenomena which seem to operate as a result of
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unknown forces." The popularity of "metapsychics" increased after the
First World War left Argentines a legacy of disillusionment and despair
That needed an antidote. Books about spiritism and mesmerism continued
D be published, and the historical eras identified by Parra were far from
Biscrete. Again, they reflected a European influence felt to be intellectually
sophisticated. This link with the intellectual tradition brought parapsychol-
gy into several Argentine universities, but other social forces eventually
terminated academic laboratory work and courses.
The United States began to influence Argentine parapsychology once the
search work of J. B. Rhine became known. A variety of institutes at-
empted to replicate and extend Rhine's experiments, and Parra identifies
several individuals who led this initiative. They include Orlando Canavesio
3915-1957), a psychiatrist who studied the EEG correlates of ESP per-
Drmance; José Fernández (1893-1967), an engineer who applied proba-
blity theory to ESP research; J. R. Musso (1917-1989), an economist and
Psychologist who conducted "sheep/goat" tests with school children and
authored a highly regarded free-response ESP test; E. Novillo-Paulí
(£919-1989), a Jesuit priest who studied PK influence on plants; and the
best known contemporary Argentine parapsychologists, Naum Kreiman
ad Dora Ivnisky, who have been instrumental in maintaining the publi-
ation of Cuadernos de Parapsicologia and who (together or separately)
have conducted a variety of ESP experiments studying such variables as
memory, emotion, and feedback.
oParra has done an exemplary piece of scholarly research, and his book
Rould give salience to the neglected field of Latin American parapsychol-
y. He has nicely documented European and North American influences
Argentine thought, research, and practice, but he has left the reader
uninformed as to whether or not a characteristic Argentine mode ever
developed. Parapsychology in the United States attempted to demonstrate
ifrigor by aping the behavioristic paradigm for several decades; one might
Speculate whether Latin Americans found phenomenology, fieldwork, and/
ZE participant observation more congruent with their culture, producing
data that were equally rigorous but perhaps richer in meaning and infor-
nation.
It also would have been useful for Parra to summarize the major ac-
complishments of Argentine parapsychology, as demonstrated by the num-
bar of citations in English-language literature reviews of articles by Musso,
Navillo-Paulí, Kreiman, and others. He also could have tabulated the types
ofresearch methods used by Argentine investigators as reported in their
prolications; this would have given the reader a clue as to whether or not
a national style exists-or ever existed. Nor does he address the divisive-
ness that appears to characterize contemporary Argentinean parapsychol-
ogy.
Nevertheless, Parra has produced a groundbreaking book that contains
several unique facets. His historical survey is embellished by quotations
from the transcripts of a pertinent legislative debate, and by the revelation
77
Reviews of Scholarly Books
that at one point government officials were associated with the field (@t,
mercifully, he omits discussion of the involvement of Isabel Perón with an
astrologer during her brief term as head of state).
There are few countries in the world in which parapsychology can clem
to have established scientific roots. The hallmarks of this claim are one pr
more professional organizations, one or more scientific journals, an a
body of parapsychological researchers. Parra has elevated Argentina topis
small assemblage-an assembly not much larger than the highly vaurged
"nuclear club," and one that future historians might laud as having made
a more noble contribution to human knowledge and achievement.
STANLEY KRIPPNER
Saybrook Institute
1550 Sutter Street
San Francisco, California 94109
PHYSICAL COSMOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY. Edited by John Les.
New York: Macmillan, 1990. Pp. vii.+ 277. $13.00, paper. L:C.
89-12263. ISBN Q-02-370021-1.
Physical Cosmology and Philosophy, edited by John Leslie, is a col@-
tion of essays dealing with the anthropic principle (i.e., the idea that
universe seems to be rather delicately designed in such a way as to support
the presence of intelligent observers). There are several ways in which the
universe seems to be specifically fine-tuned so as to allow life to evol".
For instance, as physicist Paul Davies points out in his contribution to que
volume, if the rate of expansion of the universe had differed from Rts
actually observed value by as little as one part in 1018, either all maper
would have collapsed in a black hole or the expansion rate would have
been too great to allow galaxies and stars to form. In either event, 1De
would not have evolved. Also, if the ratios of the strengths of the four
fundamental forces had been slightly different, life (or at least carbon-
based life) could not have emerged. If the number of spatial dimensionsof
the universe Had been other than three, planetary orbits would not
stable, resulting in an environment hostile to life.
The presence of so many improbable coincidences makes it seem
though the universe has been designed (perhaps by an intelligent Creator?)
in such a way as to permit the existence of conscious observers. The 21
contributions in Physical Cosmology and Philosophy each try to grapple
with this apparent evidence of purposiveness in the cosmos. Many of them
The Journal of the American Society for
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