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the situation must be the result of prior physiological activity, identical in earough evolution which, however, is the only technique possible for the
case; for example, if it is claimed the light movement is the result of movevelopment of biological faculties. The most likely alternative is that 'idea
particles in the aqueous humour, everybody must have the same sized partiontrol' is an inherent quality or characteristic of the level of consciousness
in exactly the same place at the same time, moving in the same direction attvolved, and since it did not arise biologically, the only conclusion must be that
same speed, and this situation arises every time the experiment is carried me stratum of consciousness encompassing it, is itself not a physiological entity.
The chances of such an occurrence arising fortuitously are remote in the extre The significance of the part played by the 'idea' hypothesis in the apparitional
in fact, virtually impossible, and these conditions apply to any theory based oheory has been fully covered by Tyrrell and does not arise here. However, taking
physiological function. The inference is obvious.
nto account the possibly non-physical nature of the requisite stratum of
What appears to be taking place, according to the 'idea' hypothesis, is thatonsciousness, it is clearly possible that an 'idea' could arise from one or more
first all the observers perceive the light as stationary. One observer claims 'ssychical sources and thus provide a plausible theory for several other types of
light is moving upwards' and each observer then has an 'idea' in barapsychological phenomena. If the psychically inspired 'idea' is of a scene, it
consciousness which creates the image of the light moving, upwards, and lould explain the many accounts in the literature of people finding themselves in
responsive observers will see the light doing so, as Gregory points out.
otally inexplicable surroundings, and if these have historical associations, we
In the case of the solitary observer, whose sensory image of the light is net the Versailles type of experience recorded by Jourdain and Moberly.5 If the"
primarily influenced by an 'idea' the image remains either stationary or moves;bserver is of, say, a religious disposition, the 'idea' may well create a holy figure
an entirely random manner. On the other hand, most observers are able n a grotto or on a church wall. Although widely different in their presentation,
control the movement simply by 'willing' it (i.e., by convincing themselves thall these manifestations, and those aspects of perception already discussed, are in
are able to do so), as with the anemometer effect described in an earlier issuefact simply different aspects of the one phenomenon, that is, an image arising in
the Journal.2 Control of movement is total and the light can be directed the consciousness on the inducement of an 'idea', for which in some cases there is
whichever direction may be desired, or it can be rendered stationary. Tapparently no physical basis.
observer sees it follow his 'willed' direction because there is now an 'idea' in th. It is probably useless to speculate on the nature of the 'idea-pattern' and its
consciousness which is controlling the behaviour of the image. Most people wassociated stratum of consciousness, because if these are non-physical entities, as
have no difficulty in confirming this phenomenon for themselves.
their behaviour would suggest, then the human intelligence, with its limitations,
As has already been mentioned, experiments with autokinesis and voluntarmay be incapable of comprehending them. We might have no alternative but to
perception strongly indicate that the visual images being perceived arise simplbe content with observing their manifestations. However, the extensive range of
from a belief (i.e., Tyrrell's 'idea-pattern') in the observer's consciousness anphenomena in which they appear to operate suggests that this situation already
are apparently not related to activity of the visual cortex. Ample confirmation (presents a serious challenge to the mind brain identity theory and lends credence
this situation is provided by hypnotic hallucinations which arise from an 'ideto many of the claims of parapsychology.
implanted by an external agent. There would appear to be little doubt but the
the percepts from all three sources are created by the same mechanism, compris Ashford, Kindlestown Hill
the same elements and exist in the same area of consciousness. Since sensory an Delgany, Co. Wicklow
hallucinatory images are indistinguishable, there would appear to be gooIRELAND
grounds for including sensory perception. However, there is one seriou
objection in that sensory images are obviously not initiated basically by an 'idea!
but by a brain state, and yet it can be shown that their behaviour may b
controlled by nothing more than an 'idea'. This implies that the visual corte
cannot be an integral part of the image (contrary to a widely held opinion), no:
can it create the image as some kind of physiological appendage. It seems merely
to provide information from which the consciousness may, or may not, create ?
percept.
PARAPSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION: RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS
FROM ITALY
by CARLOS S. ALVARADO
Discussion on the relationship of psi phenomena and religion is a topic that
recurs in the literature of religion and parapsychology (for a review from the
parapsychological point of view see Thouless, 1977). Some have argued that
psychic phenomena are at the root of religious beliefs and experiences (Lang,
Normally, in the creation of a percept, consciousness always follows a pattern
in the visual cortex, and it does so with meticulous exactitude, as otherwise life
would clearly be impossible. Such an arrangement has undoubtedly come inte
existence, as Tyrrell points out in considerable detail, through biological
necessity in the course of evolution. Nevertheless, the overriding control of such a
reliable procedure by an insubstantial 'idea' is a phenomenon which indisput-
ably exists, as can be demonstrated experimentally. How and why, then
:CIA-RDP96-00792R000400220001+9 (1911/1988), The Ghosts of the Trianon. The Complete AN
such an alien influence become Paved For Releasel 499 9. Certainly not ADVENTURE edited by M. H. Coleman. Wellingborough: Northants .: The Aquarian Press.
991
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[Vol. 56, No. fly 1990]
1894). Others argue that the phenomena provide evidence for a basic teneinchronisms are parapsychological phenomena consisting of ESP communica-
religion, that is, the existence of a nonphysical aspect of human beings (Rhijn between the visionaries' brains while in an altered state of consciousness.
1953). The latter reminds us that religious studies and parapsychology sharowever, one wonders if such an explanation is necessary. The authors do not
common interest in the concept of survival of bodily death.
insider the effect of practice, or previous experience of the children in the
Other writers have discussed psychic phenomena in relation to specroduction of the phenomenon. It is conceivable that after having had months or
religions such as Judaism (Bazak, 1972) and Islam (Grunebaum, 1966).cars of experience of trance behaviour the children have learned a routine of
addition, there has been much attention paid to psychic phenomena in lovements while in trance and have developed shared assumptions about the
Christian context such as those reported to occur around Catholic mystics absition or movements of the apparition, or sensibility to subtle sensory cues that
saints (Thurston, 1952), and phenomena such as Marian apparitions (Freixebay be helpful to coordinate the phenomena described as synchronisms. This
1985). More recently, the topic of parapsychology and religion has benjecture may not be substantiated by empirical evidence, but it is the sort of
discussed in a conference of the Parapsychology Foundation (Shapin & Coonsideration that we have to take into account before concluding that the
1987) and is frequently considered in contemporary publications such henomena in question may be explained by recourse to an ESP process.
Christian Parapsychologist and the Journal of Religion and Psychical Research.
Two other presenters discussed psychic phenomena associated with particular
One of the most recent contributions to the subject in question appeared in thdividuals. Father Reginaldo Thorel talked about paranormal phenomena ins **
Italian journal Quaderni di Parapsicologia (1989, Vol. 20, whole issue). The jourthe life of St. Catherine of Siena. His discussion included mention of
is the proceedings of a 1988 conference held at Bologna to discuss differencombustibility, visions and knowledge of the hidden sins of people. Thorel
aspects of the relationship of religion and parapsychology. In this report I wirgued that miracles are not considered so. important now as in the past for
briefly summarize and comment on the contents of the proceedings.
purposes of canonization. The individual's virtues are receiving more weight in
Father Andreas Resch presented an overview of ideas about psychuch processes.
phenomena in the Catholic Church. The coverage ranged from the activities Giancarlo Rosati described a variety of phenomena reported around the
the Fathers of the Church such as Tertullian to the 18th century activities Indian swami Sai Baba, who claims to be an Avatar. This included descriptions
Prospero Lambertini, known as Pope Benedict XIV. According to Resch psychof phenomena such as materialization of objects and healings. However, in
phenomena are of interest to the Church because they may foster worldviews Rosati's opinion this is not the important aspect of Sai Baba's phenomena. He
the members of the Church that are different from conventional doctrine, or theplaced more importance on the spiritual transformations that were reported to
may manifest in ways consistent with Catholic beliefs (e.g., some cases occur to people around Baba. The proceedings also include a short paper about
apparitions and healing). Parapsychology, says Resch, may be useful in terms Baba's doctrine and interpersonal relationships by Angelo Chiari. Readers
studying the authenticity and causes of miraculous claims. This is a point thanterested in more in depth information about Sai Baba should consult
has been made before by other students of the subject when, for example, aHaraldsson's (1987) recent book on the subject.
attempt has been made to draw differences between 'true' mystical phenomen, The rest of the presenters dealt with conceptual issues. Emilio Servadio argued
from 'demonic' or human paranormal occurrences (e.g., Farges, 1920/1925). that psi phenomena are partly physical and partly metaphysical or transcenden-
Other presentations may be classified in two general groups: papers dealintal. Since science deals with the physical world the scientific method was
with phenomena reported to occur around particular individuals and witconsidered to be inadequate for a complete understanding of psi. Similarly,
Sergio Bernardi argued that the idea of different levels of reality is clearly seen in
In one of the most interesting papers of the conference Giorgio Gagliardi an Eastern religions and philosophies. Psychic phenomena was seen as a natural
conceptual issues.
Marco Margnelli summarized psychophysiological researches conducted withpart of systems such as yoga.
five children that claim to have had visions of the Virgin Mary since 1981 af
In contrast to the above mentioned papers Alfonso di Nola rejected the
Medjugorje, Yugoslavia. One of the phenomena the children show is that d'existence of a transcendental world. Instead he postulated an objective and a
'synchronisms' or movements or gestures done at the same time by all children subjective reality. He suggested that all paranormal occurrences (including so
during ecstasy. The children have been subjected to a variety of tests which called magical and miraculous events) may be explained by human psi faculties.
include visual and auditory evoked potential, galvanic skin response, heart and Di Nola criticized scientists who do not want to study the paranormal on the
respiration rate measures. In the author's views the research has demonstrated basis of prejudice, as well as those that use the paranormal to justify religious
that while the children claim to have their visionary experiences 'the brain is prejudice. This paper provides a good balance to the other articles in the Quaderni
sensorially isolated from the environment, [and] the synchronisms do not seen that argue for a nonphysical and transcendental view of psychic phenomena.
to be caused by signals from the environment ... ' Some of the studies of There was also a roundtable discussing the issues of the conference.
synchronisms focused on eye movements. Two children showed similar eye Ferdinando Bersani summarized the previous papers and argued that parapsy-
movements when they were seeing the apparition of Mary. Analyses of films chology presents two dimensions. One was the attempt to explain phenomena in
showed that their eye movements coincided with each other within a variation of natural ways (i.e., as human faculties). Another was the possibility that psi
200 to 500 milliseconds. Gagliardi and Margnelli interpret this to mean that indicated the existence of a spiritual realm. In his opinion some phenomena
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suggest: (1) other levels of reality (NDEs); (2) survival of death (ND
mediumship); (3) independence of the physical body (OBEs, ESP, PK); andazak, J. (1972). Judaism and Psychic Phenomena. New York: Garrett.
analogies with miracles (PK, materializations, apports, healing), He arges, A. (1925). Mystical Phenomena Compared with their Human and Diabolical Counterfeits. New York:
Benzinger. (First published in French, 1920.)
outlined several explanatory models of psychic phenomena some of wheixedo. S. (1985). Las Apariciones de El Escorial. Madrid: Quinta.
runebaum, G. E. von. (1966). The place of parapsychological phenomena in Islam. International
focused on supernatural and human causal processes.
After Bersani's comments participants and observers discussed further issi Journal of Parapsychology, 8, 264-280.
related to the topic of the conference. For lack of space I will mention only twharaldsson, E. (1987). 'Miracles are My Visiting Cards.' London: Century.
ang, A. (1894). Cock Lane and Common-Sense. London: Longmans, Green.
these comments. Resch recognized the practical difficulties that the Church fa
eroy, O. (1928). Levitation. London: Burns Oates & Washbourne.
in demonstrating divine intervention when trying to explain miracles. Filthine, J. B. (1953). New World of the Mind. New York: William Sloane.
Liverziani commented on the differences between mediumistic and sainhapin, B., & Coly, L. (Eds.). (1987). Parapsychology, Philosophy and Religious Concepts. New York:
levitations, as seen in D. D. Home and Joseph Copertino. In his view Hor Parapsychology Foundation.
Thouless, R. H. (1977). 'Implications for religious studies.' In S. Krippner (Ed.), Advances in
Parapsychological Research: 1. Psychokinesis. New York: Plenum Press, 175-190.
produced levitations through the use of psychic energy, while Copertine
levitations were the product of his spiritual energy. This is reminiscent of Lerofhurston, H. (1952). The Physical Phenomena of Mysticism (J. H. Crehan, Ed.). London: Burns Oates.
(1928) attempts to distinguish the levitations of saints and mediums. Su
attempts to establish different causal processes of psychic phenomena &
interesting but unconvincing because no clear criteria are offered to sustain su
ideas. Even if we admit differences of magnitude in the phenomena i
explanation may be one of different social or psychological contexts. F.
THE SPINELLI DATABASE
example, a religious setting may provide a psychological set (e.g., no sense
personal responsibility in producing the phenomena) in which levitations at
by BETTY MARKWICK
other phenomena manifest in a stronger way than in other contexts. Sul
conditions may be more psi-conducive than mediumistic seances or oth
I should like to offer some comments on Rick Berger's 'Note', in the October
contexts of psi-functioning. The point is that we have to consider oth1989 Journal, entitled 'A Critical Examination of the Spinelli Dissertation Data'.
possibilities before committing ourselves to explanations having little eviden Table and page numbers refer to that article and to Ernesto Spinelli's reply in the
for their support.
same Journal.
The contributors to this conference mention issues that have been repeated
discussed in the literature on the subject. Some show interest in anomalo
phenomena reported to occur around particular individuals in a religion
context. Others focus on how parapsychology shows the existence of
nonphysical reality, a basic tenet of all religions. Still others argue for thto trials (Table 3) are virtually identical to the effect sizes of the original sets
practical use of parapsychology in distinguishing between human and supe (Table 1). Yet surely this would be expected by virtue of the definition of effect
natural causal processes or in the authentication of miracles. But is the body{ size: for a given hit probability and hit rate, effect size is constant for large
knowledge of parapsychology consistent and reliable enough to help us explo numbers of trials. Or perhaps Berger's point is that the effect sizes for the
these issues? The answer can hardly be a positive one. For one, we should i randomly removed subsets are too close to those of the original sets? We have:
careful to avoid confusing ignorance of causal mechanisms with evidence fo Observed hits, 1,500-trial sets
transcendental realities or nonphysical processes as some members of th Expected hits, 500-trial subsets
parapsychological community are prone to do. We also have to recognize how Expected hits, 1,000-trial paired sets
little we know about psi phenomena in naturalistic contexts such as the one Observed hits, 500-trial subsets
involved in the literature on miracles. At this point the best we can do i Deviations
speculate within reasonable limits and be aware that if parapsychology is goin; Chi-square
to be meaningful for issues such as the study of miracles or the influence
religious environments on the manifestation of psychic phenomena it will have t.
pay more attention to its subject matter as it occurs outside of the laboratory.
672
528
386
224
176
257.333
448
352
167
125
±3
±9
±3.667
0.0603
0.6903
0.1568
The total chi-square is 0.9074, 3 df, p = 0.82. This means that the probability of
obtaining a closer outcome in regard to effect size is 0.18-which is quite
unremarkable.
Institute for Parapsychology
Box 6847
Durham, NC 27708
U.S.A.
CHOICE DISTRIBUTION MATRIX: DISCREPANCIES
Berger points out that five of the ten rows of the choice distribution matrix
(Table 6) show unequal numbers of targets sent and received, although the row
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REFERENCES
EFFECT SIZE AND HOMOGENEITY
Dr. Berger expresses surprise that the effect sizes of randomly removed subsets
128.667
221