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A'S
OBSERVER
Published by the American Psychological Society
Vol. 7, No. 5
September 1994
· Human Capital Initiative
is funded at the National
Science Foundation in Fiscal
Year 95 budget
3
· NIMH Task Force draft report
on behavioral science ....... 4,5
Senate Pushes for NIH's
establishment of Office of
Behavioral and Social Science
Research
6
· Calls for Submissions ... insert
· APS 1995 Convention
· APS Teaching Institute
Promoting Science in a BroadWay in
New York City in 1995. See you there!
Product discounts available
to APS Members ......... insert
Get up to 50% off the price of
software, books, and journals. Mail-
in coupons are supplied.
INSIDE
Research Synthesis
8
Public Policy Developments
12
Call for Editor of CD
13
New APS Fellows
21
Departments
Presidential Column
2
Department Profile
20
International Psychology
22
Teaching Tips
24
People
26
Members in the News
28
Obituaries
30
The Student Notebook
36
Organizational Profile -
Undergraduate Research
40
Announcements
41
Employment Bulletin
45
Congress Comes Through
For Behavioral Science
Good news for psychological research funding, visibility, and NIH office
WASHINGTON, DC-Unless you've been on
the proverbial desert island, you know that
Congress has been occupied with health
care reform, a crime bill, and numerous
other mega-issues, the debate of which
prevented them from taking much of their
customary August recess.
That alone may have contributed to the
"more-heat-than-light" nature of the
speeches you saw on C-SPAN, since being
forced to stay in Washington, a.k.a. the
humidity capital of the universe, could
only add to the existing congressional
tendency to crankiness. Not to mention
the baseball strike.
Well, one of the reasons you read the
Observer is to get news from Washington
that even C-SPAN doesn't give you, right?
And once again, the news from Capitol
Hill is great: This year we are seeing
unprecedented statements of support for
behavioral and social science by congres-
sional appropriators, and despite the
generally tight federal budget for science,
there is funding for new initiatives that
will directly benefit psychology research-
ers. Of course, unlike other papers, we're
not just reporting the news; we're making
it happen. (There's a slogan in there
somewhere .... )
In all seriousness, in this Observer
issue are three stories on important actions
taken by the US Senate and House
regarding behavioral science and the
upcoming budget of the National Science
Foundation (NSF) (page 3), the National
Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)
specifically (pages 4 and 5), and the
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
generally (page 6). Take a moment to
bask in the glory with us, and remember
that this was done by the same people who
brought you the health care debate! Go
figure ...
Academy Releases Report on
Boosting Human Performance
Latest of three reports of the National Academy of Sciences examines
Evidence for claims of extraordinary training aides and techniques
WASHINGTON, DC-"Americans are always looking for an edge in performance" said
Eric Eich, associate professor of psychology at the University of British Columbia.
"If a new technique seems promising, we take a stab at it. It's our pragmatic streak,
our can-do attitude; we're always looking for an edge, especially for high-level perfor-
mance, whether it's cognitive, motor or athletic.
"Meanwhile, there are a lot of techniques that we know do work. They do enhance
human performance. They're not always easy, or quick-and-dirty, or sexy. And, in fact,
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REPORT FROM PAGE 1
Eric Eich
often they're hard work. That's the
catch," said Eich, a member of the
National Research Council's (NRC)
Committee on Techniques for the
Enhancement of Human Performance.
Eich is one of eight APS members
and fellows among the 11-member
committee whose report, Learning.
Remembering, Believing: Enhancing
Human Performance, was published by
the National Academy Press in Au-
gust .*
Released officially on August 2, the 395-page book reports on
the third phase of an NRC effort started almost a decade ago
when the US Army needed scientifically based critical evalua-
tions of "human technologies" that were being aggressively
promoted by commercial concerns as enhancers of learning and
performance. Because of its large economic and personnel
investment in training, the military wanted to satisfy more than
just its curiosity about these technologies. So, officials of the
Army Research Institute (ARI) commissioned the study to assess
the state of knowledge. [See the November 1991 Observer for an
extensive summary of the NRC's second report (In the Mind's
Eye: Enhancing Human Performance) of what ultimately will be
a four-report series.]
Questions
Was there anything real and worthwhile, for example. in
extrasensory perception or "hemispheric synchronization" or
subliminal stimulation? What was the evidence on sleep learn-
ing, mental practice of motor skills, or group cohesion tech-
niques? The Army had to decide which techniques to adopt.
which to keep, which to discard-and it needed information on
which to base such decisions.
The just-completed third phase of the study has been chaired
by APS Charter Fellow Robert Bjork who also took part in each
of the previous phases. Initially, the Army wanted information
about new human technologies to avoid large expenditures and
efforts in arcas that wouldn't pay off, Bjork said.
Although the overall program has been funded all along by
ARI, the concerns it addresses are widely applicable to a broad
range of settings and populations in school and both public and
private organizations, ranging from nuclear power environments
to air traffic control towers.
The NRC Committee on a site visit at the Army's National Training
Center at Fort Irwin in the Mohave Desert.
Answers for Everyone
"I think everybody is concerned about these issues. from
parents thinking about the education their kids are getting. to
companies concerned whether they can learn and change in
response to new challenges and constraints," Bjork said.
"On one hand we found that people are often too receptive to
trying novel and attractive techniques for which there is no
evidence of effectiveness but perhaps which are being promoted
by a very convincing entrepreneur. People also often do not
incorporate into their training programs the most tried and true
principles derived from research." Bjork said.
The new study differs in many ways from its two
carlier reports, particularly in picking up new directions
in research and exploring promising aspects of emerging
research fields. The 1987 and 1991 studies evaluated
and sometimes debunked about 15 highly promoted
"self-improvement" techniques and other programs and
approaches that promised high performance. The
second report, In the Mind's Eye, also focused on
scientifically tried and supported ways by which people
can acquire and maintain job-related skills needed to
fulfill the missions of the Army and other organizations.
The current report covers topics in four broad areas:
Learning and remembering, Learning and Performing in
teams. mental and emotional states, and new techniques
(e.g., thought suppression).
Members of the Committee on Techniques for the
Enhancement of Human Performance
Robert A. Bjork (chair)
Univ. of California-Los Angeles
John F. Kihlstrom
Yalc Univ.
Donald F. Dansereau
Texas Christian Univ.
Roberta Klatzky
Carnegie Mellon Univ.
Eric Eich
Univ. of British Columbia
Lynne M. Reder
Carnegie Mellon Univ.
Deborah L. Feltz
Michigan State Univ.
Daniel M. Wegner
Univ. of Virginia-Charlottesville
Larry L. Jacoby
McMaster Univ.
Robert B. Zajonc
Univ. of Michigan-Ann Arbor
David W. Johnson
Univ. of Minnesota
Daniel Druckman (Study Director)
National Research Council
CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE
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Techniques Examined
But Learning, Remembering, Believing evaluates several
additional techniques proclaimed as performance enhancers,
including situated learning and REST (Restricted Environ-
mental Stimulation), both of which received mixed or low
ratings from the Committee, though they have strong backing in
some academic circles. The new study also takes a second look
at meditation, specifically at Transcendental Meditation, and at
sleep learning and some of the other techniques that were treated
in the earlier reports.
For the first time, the new report analyzes the body of research
on techniques of thought suppression, socially induced
emotion in relation to performance, and false illusions of
comprehension and competency. It also evaluates the impact of
situation-specific self-confidence on performance and looks at
strategies for developing self-confidence.
A major section of the new report focuses on development of
teams, and cooperative learning.
A closing section of the report suggests some answers to
puzzling questions about why many organizations neglect or fail
to use effective methods for training their personnel. Some
company officials at more than two dozen site visits made by
NRC subcommittee members said they did not take more serious
approaches to training because "training is a slice out of profits."
A member of the Los Angeles Police Department downplayed
long-term investment in training by saying you should only do
enough so that "the bridge falls down when the next mayor is in
office."
Innate Fallacy
A major barrier to the design of effective training programs,
the Committee said, is the "innate ability fallacy." This is the
false belief that performance is primarily a function of innate
abilities and that people are born to be a certain way with regard
to performance. Instead, the Committee sees humanity as
dynamic, learning persons who respond to effective programs of
training and practice.
The Committee also criticized tendencies to construct the
conditions of training to minimize errors so that both trainees and
instructors will look their best. Instead, the process of making
and correcting errors should not be shunned; it is an essential
component of optimal training. Similarly, the Committee took a
dim view of the exclusive use of tests as assessment devices,
which largely negates their important role as learning devices.
Furthermore, the Committee cautioned that performance evalua-
tions given immediately as training ends will miss the main goal
of training, which is to transfer learned skills to the settings in
which trainees will work.
Behavioral Science Application
The NRC's broad, long-term undertaking-which now is
entering its fourth phase [sce box on page 17] this year with
Jerome E. Singer as chair-is not like any other program, as it
brings behavioral research literature to bear on specific, practical
questions.
"What makes this committee unique," said Daniel Druckman,
NRC Study Director, "is that we get a dozen or so people to start
thinking together for a couple of years and to draw on the
literature that they know-or discover in the process-and make
that literature speak to the question of the effectiveness of the
techniques for enhancing human performance. In most cases the
techniques we've looked at have not been subject to that kind of
scrutiny before."
Besides discussing the NRC Committee's work with
Druckman, who also is professor of conflict resolution at George
Mason University's Institute of Conflict Analysis and Resolution,
the Observer interviewed several of the Committee members on
the major techniques covered in this latest report. Their com-
ments follow in the topical sections below.
Situated Learning
Proponents of situated learning say essentially that the only
way to learn is by performing the process in its specific situation,
and that advanced conceptual understanding does not help.
Roberta Klatzky, professor and head of psychology at Carnegie-
Mellon University, points out that the Committee takes the
balanced view that concrete experience and conceptual learning
are often both helpful and necessary.
"What we mean by conceptual learning will vary from task to
task," Klatzky said, "but let's take the example of training
someone to fly a plane. You can put that person in the cockpit
and say, 'Look, pull this button and away we go!' Or, you can
also teach that person something about the physical principles
and concepts that underlie flying, about what factors must be
controlled and what the plane does in response. That way they
can more effectively make a 'mapping' to the buttons they will
eventually learn to control, and they'll understand why," she said.
"But there is no easy formula for the
right mix [of concrete and conceptual],"
Klatzky said. "A task analysis is terribly
important in determining any training
program."
Committee member Lynne Reder
says that the situated learning advocates
believe that a person's knowledge will
not generalize from one situation to
another. Their claims challenge not only
the fundamentals of cognitive psychol-
ogy but also the simple belief that
schools should try to teach basic skills,
Reder says.
Lynne Reder
"Basic skills do generalize from one context to the next. For
example, most kids learn to read and write in school, and these
skills clearly generalize beyond the classroom. Math, too," Reder
said. "Situated learning proponents also believe that abstract
instruction is of no value. But, there is ample evidence that
transfer is much better when instruction includes both concrete
and abstract instruction," she said.
Situated learning proponents argue that "to understand
performance, it is necessary to understand the social situation in
which it occurs, including the way in which social interaction
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REPORT FROM PAGE 15
enters into performance," Reder explained. "I wouldn't disagree,
but they therefore conclude that all training must include the
social setting. We believe that it's often better to start with part-
task training-training the specific skills separate from the social
skills before going on to whole-task training. Whether you train
with part-task first depends on how separable the pieces are," she
said.
"We say that training in the
anticipated context is often better, all
else being equal. But one cannot
always anticipate future contexts of
application. Therefore, optimal
training involves practice using varied
contexts and also includes abstract
general instructions," Reder said.
"It's sometimes important to start
Donald Dansereau
with simulation training, ... for lots of
things that are too dangerous or costly
or time-consuming, or where it's too hard to find a situation ....
But it has also been argued that too much fidelity is detrimental at
the outset, that it's too complicated and you need to start with a
simpler version, slowly adding in a richer, more faithful simula-
tion," Reder said.
Illusions of Competence
Bjork noted that a number of recent research findings suggest
that false illusions of comprehension and competence are
commonplace in standard programs of training.
"Trainces can confuse familiarity with understanding. They
can confuse the ability to follow a procedure when executed by
someone else with their own competence to perform that proce-
durc. And they can confuse the ability
to recall relevant knowledge under
predictable conditions with ability to
access that knowledge in other (unpre-
dictable) conditions," Bjork explained.
He said the Committee concluded it is
as important to educate trainees about
their own subjective experience as about
their objective performance, so that they
can gain a valid reading of their own
skills and knowledge.
Daniel Wegner
Summary of Findings on
TOPICS AND TECHNIQUES STUDIED
BY THE NRC COMMITTEE
Current (Third) Phase - 1994
Situated Learning. Committee criticized this approach as
too extreme but said contextual learning is very important
and needs to be combined with learning principles and
concepts, not focusing solely on one or the other.
Illusions of Competence, Comprehension, and Remem-
bering. Committee explored false memories and illusions
of competence and the unreliability of subjective experi-
ence, which relies on an unconscious attribution or
inference process.
Cooperative Learning. Committee viewed this approach
favorably. Working on problems in dyads or small groups
has a positive impact on individual performance, though
Committee cautioned that roles and activities must be
carefully defined and scripted.
Team Building. Teams have good effects on morale by
building cohesion and identity, Committee found, but they
don't seem to improve performance, especially in the long
term. Effects are largely on emotion and motivation but
do not translate into higher performance.
Interactive Games. Again, they instill positive attitudes
toward the learning experience, but evidence to date does
not show better effects on learning than from other
techniques.
Team Training. There is some evidence of effectiveness
for efforts to promote positive interdependence, individual
accountability for performance, the playing up of contribu-
tions by the members of the team, and team processing of
performance in response to feedback.
Building Self-Confidence. Various kinds of programs do
affect perceptions of self-confidence in learners, and self-
confidence does play an important role in performance,
though it is not a simple matter. Perceived self-confidence
involves both cognitive and motivational factors and is
rooted in beliefs about what affects performance. Findings
provide a basis for designing programs to improve percep-
tions of efficacy in order to improve performance.
Altering States of Consciousness. Committee examined
sleep learning a second time, lowering its earlier evalua-
tion. Transcendental Meditation was found helpful in
stress reduction, but no more so than some other medita-
tion and stress reduction techniques. Hypnosis, examined
by Committee for the first time, was found potentially
helpful for pain reduction but not directly effective in
boosting performance. Restricted environmental stimula-
tion (REST) does not appear to live up to its ambitious
claims; but being in solitude for a period without distrac-
tions may have salutary effects for the short period,
Committee finds.
Socially Induced Affect. By mimicking the facial or
vocal expressions of another person, one may feel the
emotions those expressions suggest. The Committee found
evidence for such transmission of affect, but there was less
evidence to date of its impact on performance.
Thought Suppression. Committee found evidence that
intentional efforts to forget intrusive thoughts are largely
ineffective, and suppressing thoughts tends to increase the
strength of emotion attached to them.
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Thought Suppression
Committee member Daniel Wegner, said the somewhat
limited research on thought suppression seems to show that as a
technique for mental control it is ineffective. In fact, it even
appears to produce effects contrary to those sought (e.g., elimi-
nating an obsessive thought) by "sensitizing ourselves to un-
wanted thoughts by the very act of suppression." Some current
research suggests that "unwanted thoughts are often avoided
most successfully by approaching them," Wegner said. "Giving
people a chance to think or talk about their unwanted thought,
time to spend approaching their worries, seems to be an effective
technique. At this point we are not in a position to say these are
invariably the best alternatives, but caution about using thought
suppression is something that people might want to be careful
about," Wegner said.
Asked how conscious thought suppression relates to Freudian
psychoanalytic theory, he said there may be some indications that
deliberate suppression involves risks similar to those Freud found
in unconscious repression (i.c., increased emotional power of the
avoided thoughts).
The other suppression technique examined was "directed
forgetting," where one tries to unlearn obsolete patterns (c.g.,
such as how one used the controls of one's former car) that
interfere with new contexts (c.g., a new car's controls). Needed
is research on how to facilitate the forgetting of unneeded
information without the negative consequences of thought
suppression.
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning involves small groups of peers, usually
of equal status. The concern is for what the individual learns in a
cooperative situation compared to what he or she learns alone.
Committee member Donald Dansereau said cooperative learning
seems to work with a wide variety of tasks and topics-math-
ematics, and social science, for example. There are enough solid
studies that have used random assignment to groups that suggest
that it does seem effective, Dansereau said, and that is essentially
the Committee's conclusion.
The effect sizes are at the moderate level, with increases (of
about a third to a half of a standard deviation) in achievement
gained from cooperative over individual study. Some peripheral
gains derive from cooperative learning, however, Dansereau said.
For example, if the activity is well scripted-almost like a play
script with roles and defined activities while cooperating-there
scems to be some transfer to new activities, Dansercau said.
One of the most important findings, Dansereau believes, is
that individuals "in cooperative contexts learn something that can
be applied to private studying contexts, because learning and
processing new information is a rather private activity. It is not
like learning a new skill in racquetball, for example, by watching
somebody play, and then trying to emulate. Rather, in thinking
and learning, there usually is nothing obvious to emulate, but the
cooperative situation makes the learning process more public,
and participants begin to assimilate how others have tackled
problems."
Learning and Performing in Teams
The Committee found many benefits in team training but
team building efforts do not seem to enhance performance,
Druckman noted. The four general approaches to team build-
ing-goal setting, interpersonal relations, role clarification, and
problem solving-may boost morale and enhance group cohe-
sion. But the increased morale and cohesion of teams within a
larger organization may have detrimental effects on the organiza-
tion itself, since relations with members of other groups may
weaken, and intra-organizational conflicts between groups may
increase.
Altering States of Consciousness
Hypnosis. "By and large, direct
hypnotic suggestions for enhanced
performance have no effect on muscu-
lar strength and endurance, sensory
thresholds, learning and memory
retrieval," said Committee member
John Kihlstrom. "Hypnotized people
may believe they are doing better, and
John Kihlstrom
this belief may have positive motiva-
tional properties, but actual perfor-
mance enhancements appear to be an
illusion," he said. "However, hypnosis is an effective technique
for the control of pain. And to the extent that a person's pain
diminishes his or her motivation to perform optimally, hypnosis
may have an indirect impact on performance."
Restricted Environments. REST, or restricted environmen-
tal stimulation- reminiscent of sensory deprivation research of
the 1950s-can be conducted in two ways. One is called
chamber rest. In a dark, soundproof room the subject lays down
typically for one day, with no auditory stimulation. The other
approach uses a tank or a flotation raft on which one floats on a
SEE REPORT ON PAGE 18
Committee Enters Fourth Phase
Organizational Performance
The fourth phase of the NRC enhanced performance study,
Enhancing Organizational Performance, got under way in
June with a 14-member committee chaired by Jerome E.
Singer of the Uniformed Services University of the Health
Sciences. Daniel Druckman remains as Study Director. Its
members include APS Fellow Robert Kahn of the Univer-
sity of Michigan's Institute for Social Research, and APS
Charter Member W. Warner Burke of Columbia Univer-
sity, as well as sociologists, organizational behavior
specialists from business schools, and political scientists.
The Committee's concerns include the impact of
organizational restructuring and redesign on performance,
organizational cultures and the implications of their
folkways and accepted wisdom for performance, inter-
organizational relations, changing conceptions of leader-
ship, and peacekeeping and conflict management. The
report is estimated to be released about 1997.
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REPORT FROM PAGE 17
supersaturated liquid in total darkness for one hour, typically. In
either case, the experience generally elicits pleasant sensations.
Whether the technique can be used for therapeutic purposes
began to be an issue in the 1980s. There are claims, not dealt
with by the Committee, that REST treatment is useful for stress
management and perhaps for certain addictive behaviors. The
NRC Committee did attempt to evaluate the effects of REST on
cognitive processes like learning, memory, decision-making, and
problem solving. A newer literature studied by the Committee is
concerned with athletic performance and skills. There is some
evidence of the performance-enhancing effects of REST and
there are a few formal studies, but not enough for firm conclu-
sions, about the effects, if any, and their underlying mechanisms,
the Committec stated.
Eich said, that "among other things, there is no data now, even
assuming the effects are real, about how long the effects last. If I:
float today, is it going to help my tennis game next week? More ;
importantly, why should REST be helpful? There are no compel-
ling theories," Eich said.
Meditation. In examining Transcendental Meditation (TM),
Kihlstrom said the Committee focused on three meta-analyses of
physiological effects, anxiety, and self-actualization. "We
concluded that although those meta-analyses do give evidence for
positive effects, it turns out to be very difficult to tease apart the
factors involved. The whole TM package is so different from the
control conditions to which it has been compared that it is not
clear TM itself really has the specific effects that are claimed for
it."
Summary of Findings on
TOPICS AND TECHNIQUES STUDIED
BY THE NRC COMMITTEE
First Phase - 1987
SALTT. Suggestive Accelerated Learning and Teaching
Techniques include some music and relaxation techniques.
The NRC Committee found that SALTT contains some
ingredients that could help students learn better, but it's
difficult to know which elements are most important.
Neurolinguistic Programming. Purports to teach one to
influence others more effectively by mimicking their eye-
movements and noting the way they use words, modeling
after expert therapists. The Committee liked the way it
was developed but found that the evidence did not support
claimed effectiveness.
Hemisphere Synchronization. Tones are emitted in ears
to synchronize the two hemispheres of the brain and thus
make one think creatively. Committee found no evidence
for bifurcation of the hemispheres that needed any such
correction.
Extrasensory Perception. Committee disputed claims
made for its existence ..
Sleep Learning. Committee found it might be useful to
reinforce previously learned language material and to
prime future learning was found possibly effective. It
suggested another look, but the third Committee found
less evidence of effectiveness.
·
Stress Reduction. Committee said good things about
much of it but gave a mixed message on biofeedback,
which it found good for fine motor coordination in violin
playing, for example, but not particularly effective in
reducing stress over the long term.
Mental Practice of Motor Skills. The Committee rated
this technique highly. It does incrementally increase
performance, especially when combined with physical
practice.
Group Cohesion. Committee noted dysfunctions of
cohesive units in terms of reducing initiative and creativity,
and loosening bonds with other units in the organization.
But it increases morale and motivation.
Second Phase - 1991
(See November 1991 Observer)
Modeling Experts. Watching experts perform and
imitating them is not particularly good for novices but can
be effective at some point later in development, Committee
found.
.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Committee took strong
position against typing people as if they fit into a box and
never change, rather than treating them as dynamic,
learning people. At best, Myers-Briggs gives a picture of
an individual at a given point in time. It should not be
used to assemble teams or pick people for jobs.
Subliminal Learning Tapes. Committee found no useful
function for learning or performance enhancement.
Kundalini Yoga. Committee noted that it can reduce
stress, as measured by blood pressure and other physiologi-
cal indicators, but it is no better than other relaxation
techniques for this. Committee found no evidence of
anything intrinsic that produces higher states of being and
corresponding salutary effects over the long term, as
claimed.
Non-verbal Cues to Lying and Deception. Committee
found literature quite promising about ways of looking at
non-verbal cues to detect deception.
Mental Practice in Sports. Committee examined mental
practice again and was again quite positive.
Team Performance and Decision-Making. Committee
found a number of techniques (e.g., Delphi, nominal
group) have been used, though few have been evaluated
systematically. Research on real groups has helped
understand individual groups, but is not generalizable.
Because of logistical difficulties, the military is best suited
to study the requisite large number of comparable groups
and subjects.
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. Bjork said the question asked was: Were there features unique
to TM that made it better than other programs of progressive
relaxation or other meditative techniques? The Committee did
not address the broader question of whether someone's life might
be straightened out or whether they would find a greater sense of
peace, he said.
Sleep Learning. With respect to sleep Icarning, Kihlstrom
pointed out that the Committee in an earlier phase had discovered
that while there was no evidence of its effectiveness for explicit
memory, there was some reason to think that implicit memory
might be possible from material presented during sleep.
"However, when we looked at studies addressing this issue
and concluded that there is no implicit memory for sleep learning
just as there is no explicit memory for sleep learning. The
bottom line is that slecp learning is neither an effective nor an
efficient way of enhancing learning," Kihlstrom said.
Self-Confidence
Perceptions of self-confidence
affect performance, and trainers can
help boost students' confidence in
themselves and improve their
performance, the NRC Committee
found. Self-confidence is a fairly
strong predictor of how students and
trainees approach a task, and it
remains a strong clement, even after
Deborah Feltz
they have learned the task, according
to Committee Member Deborah Feltz. Self-confidence in this
sense is very specific to the situation or task, she said. For
example, a baseball player may have greater confidence in his
fielding than his batting. One's self-confidence can be accurate,
inflated or deflated by various degrees, by comparison with task
performance.
Strategies to cultivate self-confidence are specific to the task
or domain, Feltz said. "You use different strategies to cultivate
self-confidence with phobics trying to overcome a phobia than
you use with athletes in muscular endurance tasks, for example."
she said.
Summing up the findings regarding what works to produce
enhanced performance, Feltz replied, "Hard work-not just
trying to become competent by some easy method (c.g., by taking
a pill or sleeping on a book rather than reading through it). You
really just can't beat determination and practice, practice.
practice. And not being afraid to make mistakes. In terms of
self-confidence, training must involve helping people not become
discouraged by mistakes." D.K.
Learning, Remembering, Believing: Enhancing Human
Performance is available for $39.95 plus shipping ($4 for
the first copy and $.50 for each additional copy) from the
National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Ave., NW.
Washington, DC 20418, Tel .: 202-334-3313 or order by
phone toll free at 1-800-624-624 from outside the Wash-
ington, DC area.]
What Works, What Doesn't
"TRIED AND TRUE" AND
NEW APPROACHES:
MAJOR FINDINGS
Debunking new "human technologies" that don't
deliver on their inflated promises is only part of the
mission of the NRC Committee on Techniques
for Enhancement of Human Performance.
The NRC study's main purpose is a highly
positive one: to promote the use of what Commit-
tee Chair Bjork sometimes calls "tried and true"
approaches and techniques, for which there is
strong scientific evidence of effectiveness. Among
them:
Concrete experience and teaching of abstract principles
are both important in acquiring skills. Learning need not
be situated in the performance context to be effective.
Regular challenges should reveal to learners the actual
extent of their understanding of the task or material they
are learning. Gaps between feelings of knowing and
actual comprehension can be wide and perilous.
The importance of aptitude and innate ability tends to be
inappropriately overestimated, and the importance of
training, practice, and experience tends to be underesti-
mated by many organizations. Training plays a large role
in performance.
Cooperative learning fosters individual learning and
social interactions, both of which lead to enhanced
performance, at least from evidence with children. More
research with complex adult learning tasks is needed.
Team building that boosts morale and enhances team
cohesion may increase inter-team conflict and negatively
affect overall organizational performance. Such nega-
tives can be reduced by timing team-building interven-
tions to transition periods in teams' life cycles.
.
Training in teams offers many benefits. Effectiveness
can be improved within each of the key four phases:
Inputs (resources and tasks), process (what to focus on),
mediators (how to structure the training) and outcomes
(what to assess at the end).
· Task-specific self-confidence plays an important role in
performance, and perceived self-confidence can be
manipulated to enhance performance.
Socially induced affect-the way one person's expressed
feeling can influence another's-has interesting implica-
tions for performance but needs further research.
Thought suppression-a special research effort should
focus on how to forget old, unneeded information that
interferes with performing new tasks while avoiding the
adverse effects of thought suppression.
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