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Vol. 70
No. 2
PROCEEDINGS IEEE
R
Scanning the Issue
Adjustable Speed AC Drives-A Technology Status Review
(Invited Paper), Bose, page 116-After nearly a decade and a
half of intensive development, adjustable speed ac drives have
assumed a position of great importance in a large variety of
industrial applications. This has led to a pressing need in the
industrial and academic communities for an understanding of
the basics and state of the art of this growing technology. This
invited paper, believed to be the first of its kind on this subject,
is a tutorial-review of ac drives intended to be useful both to
the reader who has a general interest in industrial control using
ac drives and to the specialist who wishes to extend and expand
his or her knowledge.
The ac machines which constitute the principal subsystem of
these drives are first concisely but thoroughly reviewed in the
paper. Following this, the technical features of different classes
of drives with converters, such as voltage-fed converters, cur-
rent-fed converters, cycloconverters, static Kramer, and static
Scherbius drives, are discussed. The paper then describes
modeling and simulation of ac drives, and finally the subject
of microcomputer control is reviewed in some detail. Through-
out the paper, the current trends of development of power
semiconductor devices, machines, converters, and controls are
indicated wherever possible.
The Persistent Paradox of Psychic Phenomena: An Engineering
Perspective (Invited Paper), Jahn, page 136-The persistent,
fragmentary indication of the possible existence of psychic
phenomena requires us, in the interests of scientific integrity
and intellectual honesty, to apply the same spirit of objective
inquiry that we have focused on the more traditional and
accepted branches of science and technology.
It was nearly six years ago-in March 1976, to be exact-that
the PROCEEDINGS took the unusual step of publishing a paper
on the psychic phenomenon called remote viewing. That paper
was received with great interest, considerable skepticism, some
hostility, and even a bit of shock. In the intervening years, no
breakthroughs have occurred to prove or disprove the existence
of this and other psychic phenomena, but interest and research
have continued unabated. Where does research on these topics
stand now? It was with this question in mind that the paper in
this issue was invited.
This paper reviews the history, nomenclature, conceptual
organization, and status of the generic field of psychic phe-
nomena; presents a few detailed examples of contemporary
research that could have ultimate technological implications;
and attempts to offer a balanced view of the viability and value
of continued study of this fascinating and controversial field.
The paper is believed to represent the first attempt at a
comprehensive engineering survey of the field. Most readers
will likely approach it with a healthy blend of curiosity and
skepticism. It is hoped all will find it informative and thought
provoking.
Performance Evaluation of Data Communication Systems
(Invited Paper), Reiser, page 171-Great strides have been
taken in recent years in developing the architecture of message
or packet-based communication networks. Much has been
learned about organizing, controlling, and operating such net-
works, but performance and design principles were developed
in parallel, and networks were built before a complete under-
standing of their performance was achieved. Major progress
has been made in evaluating the performance of such commu-
nication systems, and this invited paper presents a tutorial
survey of the state of the art of this field. The majority of the
literature on performance evaluation emphasizes protocol
evaluation, and the author systematically develops this ap-
proach.
Following a general introduction to performance evaluation,
the paper gives considerable attention to the mathematical
tools involved, using the language of the communication engi-
neer. The major mathematical techniques are Markov chains
applied to discrete time systems and queueing theory. Through-
out emphasis is given to how these tools are applied in practice.
The mathematical methods do not map on a one-to-one basis
to the system, and the leading modeling ideas are highlighted.
The embedding environments in which protocols are analyzed
are discussed in some detail, and the paper follows the frame-
work of layered architecture. Separate sections are devoted
to the performance analysis of data-link protocols, path-con-
trol protocols, and end-to-end protocols.
4,
115.
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 70, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1982
[132] M. Schwartz, "Performance analysis of the SNA virtual route
pacing control," IBM Res. Rep. RC 8490, Thomas J. Watson
Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY, Sept. 1980.
{133] F. Tobagi and L. Kleinrock, "Packet switching in radio channels:
Part IV-Stability considerations and dynamic control in carrier
sense multiple access," IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. COM-25,
pp. 1103-1120, Oct. 1977.
[134]
F. A. Tobagi, M. Gerla, R. W. Peebles, and E. G. Manning,
"Modeling and measurement techniques in packet communica-
:
tion networks," Proc. IEEE, vol. 66, no. 11, pp. 1423-1447,
Nov. 1978.
[135] F. A. Tobagi and V. B. Hunt, "Performance analysis of carrier
sense multiple access with collision detection," Comput. Net.,
vol. 4, pp. 245-259, 1980.
[136] V. L. Wallace, "Algebraic techniques for the numerical solution
of queueing networks," in Mathematical Methods in Queuing
Theory, A. B. Clarke, Ed. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 1974,
pp. 295-305.
[137] C. H. West, "General technique for communications protocol
validation," IBM J. Res. Devel., vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 393-404,
July 1978.
[138] J. W. Wong and M. S. Unsoy, "Analysis of flow control in
switched data networks," in Proc. IFIP Conf. on Information
Processing. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: North-Holland, 1977,
pp. 315-320.
[139] J. W. Wong, "Distribution of end-to-end delay in message switched
networks," Comput. Net., vol. 2, pp. 4 -49, 1978
[140] J. W. Wong, J.A.B. Moura, and J. A. Field, "Hierarchical model-
ing of local area computer networks," in Proc. Nat. Telecom-
mun. Conf. '80 (Houston, TX, 1980).
[141] J. W. Wong and S. S. Lam, "Queueing network models of packet-
switching networks, Part 1: Open networks," Performance
Evaluation, to be published.
[142] P. Zafiropulo, C. H. West, H. Rudin, D. D. Cowan, and D. Brand,
"Towards analyzing and synthesizing protocols," IEEE Trans.
Commun., vol. COM-28, pp. 651-661, Apr. 1980.
Contributors
. Engineering.
Bimal K. Bose (S'59-M'60-SM'78) received the
B.E. degree from Calcutta University, Calcutta,
India, in 1956, the M.S. degree from the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, Madison, in 1960, and the
Ph.D. degree from Calcutta University, in 1966.
He was a Member of Faculty at Calcutta Uni-
versity where he was awarded the Premchand
Roychand scholarship and the Mouat gold
medal for research contributions. In 1971, he
joined Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
NY, as an Associate Professor of Electrical
He was responsible for organizing undergraduate and
graduate power electronics programs, including an advanced course on
adjustable speed ac drives. He was a consultant for several industries
including General Electric R&D Center, Bendix Corporation, Lutron
Electronics, and PCI Ozone Corporation. Since 1976 he has been with
General Electric, Corporate Research and Development, Schenectady,
NY. His research interests are power conversion systems and micro-
computer-based performance optimization of ac drives.
Dr. Bose has published 42 research papers and holds a number of U.S.
patents. Recently, he edited the IEEE press book Adjustable Speed AC
Drives. He is Chairman of IEEE Transactions Review of Static Power
Converter Committee, a member of the Power Electronics and Micro-
computer Control Committee, the IEEE Industrial Electronics and
Control Instrumentation Group, the Scientific Committee of the Inter-
national Conference on Digital Control of Electrical Machine, and of
the Program Committee of the International Static Power Converter
Conference, a member of the Steering Committee for the Workshop on
Automotive Applications of Microprocessors, a member of the Fellow
Nominating Committee for the IEEE Static Power Converter Committee,
and a member of the Program Committee of the Tokyo International
Power Electronics Conference.
*
Robert G. Jahn received the B.S. degree in
mechanical engineering in 1951, the M.A. de-
gree in physics in 1953, and the Ph.D. degree in
physics in 1955, all from Princeton University,
Princeton, NJ.
He has taught at Lehigh University, Bethie-
hem, PA, at the California Institute of Tech-
nology, Pasadena, and, since 1962, at Princeton
University, where he is Dean of the School of
Engineering and Applied Science and also serves
as Professor of Aerospace Sciences. His principal
areas of scholarship include high temperature gasdynamics, ionized gas
kinetics, plasmadynamics and plasma propulsion, and his book, The
Physics of Electric Propulsion remains the standard text in its field. His
interest in psychic phenomena traces to his supervision of a student
project begun in 1977, and although his present program in this area
remains a very minor part of his professional activity, it has achieved
international prominence in the field.
Dr. Jahn received the Curtis W. McGraw Research Award of the ASEE,
and he is a Fellow of both the American Physical Society and the
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. He has served on
several NASA Advisory Committees, and is a member and past-chairman
of the Board of Trustees of Associated Universities, Inc.
Martin Reiser was born in Switzerland in 1943.
He received his education from the Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) where
he obtained the Ph.D. degree in 1971.
One year later, he switched from the IBM
Zurich Research Laboratory, Rüschlikon, Swit-
zerland, to the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research
Center, Yorktown Heights, NY, where he
joined the Performance Evaluation group. He
specialized in the numerical solution of queueing
networks, and made contributions to the theory
of multichain networks and their numerical solution. Together with
J. Buzen and H. Kobayashi, he laid the foundation for today's fast
algorithms in queueing networks and created one of the first modeling
software packages, known as QNET 4. He is author or co-author of
numerous publications in the field. After spending about 1 year at the
IBM Research Laboratory in San Jose, CA, he returned to Yorktown
Heights where he was soon appointed Manager of Performance Evalua-
tion. He led efforts in analysis, hierarchical modeling, and system
measurement. In late 1977, he started a new group in the area of
Computer Communication Network Modeling and Architecture. This
activity led to a new assignment in 1978 as Senior Manager of Com-
munications and Computer Science back at the IBM Zurich Research
Laboratory, a position he still holds. His latest technical interests are in
mean-value analysis, a theory he co-founded with S. S. Lavenberg and
which he applied to computer networks.
Dr. Reiser is a member of ACM, IFIP WG.7.3, and IFIP WG 6.4.
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 70, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1982
136
The Persistent Paradox of Psychic Phenomena:
An Engineering Perspective
ROBERT G. JAHN
Invited Paper
Abstract-Although a variety of so-called psychic phenomena have at-
tracted man's attention throughout recorded history, organized scholarly
effort to comprehend such effects is just one century old, and systematic
academic research roughly half that age. Over recent years, a sizeable
spectrum of evidence has been brought forth from reputable laboratories
in several disciplines to suggest that at times human consciousness can
acquire information inaccessible by any known physical mechanism
(ESP), and can influence the behavior of physical systems or processes
(PK), but even the most rigorous and sophisticated of these studies
display a characteristic dilemma: The experimental results are rarely rep-
licable in the strict scientific sense, but the anomalous yields are well
beyond chance expectations and a number of common features thread
through the broad range of reported effects. Various attempts at theoret-
ical modeling have so far shown little functional value in explicating
experimental results, but have served to stimulate fundamental re-exam-
ination of the role of consciousness in the determination of physical
reality. Further careful study of this formidable field seems justified,
but only within the context of very well conceived and technically im-
peccable experiments of large data-base capability, with disciplined at-
tention to the pertinent aesthetic factors, and with more constructive
involvement of the critical community.
Prologue
The world of psychic phenomena might be likened to a vast,
fog-shrouded swamp, wherein are reported to dwell a bewilder-
ing array of bizarre phenomenological creatures, all foreign to
our normal perceptual and analytical catalogs. Some scholars
who have explored this clouded domain have returned to an-
nounce categorically that all such life is illusory-mere sunken
stumps and swirling subsurface shadows, inviting misperception
by the gullible and misrepresentation by the purveyors. But
others of comparable conviction have described in minute de-
tail their observations of a variety of extraordinary beings of
awesome dimensions and capability. Some of these are claimed
to appear unexpectedly, erupting from the roily depths to
flash momentarily in the sunlight of human experience, only
to disappear again before any systematic calibration of their
characteristics can be taken. Others are reportedly enticed to
more replicable and controlled behavior, but only by persons
of special talent or extensive training. Much invalid, even
fraudulent evidence of such activity has been touted by ex-
ploiters of these mysteries, thereby casting deep suspicion on
all other testimony. When fully sifted, only a very few legiti-
mate specimens seem to have been captured, by tediously de-
liberate trolling of the brackish domain, or by more incisive
invasion of its turbid interior, and even these have proven so
incomprehensible and so delicate to exposure, and the imposed
criteria for their credibility have been so severe, that they have
not been fully persuasive. Yet the goal remains alluring, and
the search continues.
INTRODUCTION
ITH THIS unlikely bit of allegorical musing, I venture
to begin the most extraordinary writing task I have yet
attempted: to respond to the request of the Editors
of this journal for a critical review of the status and prognosis
of scientific research into so-called psychic phenomena. I do
so with some trepidation, first because the topic is far from
my principal line of scholarship and my involvement with it
has been brief and tightly circumscribed, and second, because
of the intensity of reactions any commentary on this subject
tends to call forth from many quarters.
For these reasons, it may be well at the outset to specify my
perspective on the field and the purpose that I hope this article
will serve. My formal training is that of an engineer and applied
physicist, and the bulk of my research has concerned a sequence
of topics in the broad domain of the aerospace sciences: Fluid
mechanics, ionized gases, plasmadynamics, and electric propul-
sion. In my present position as Dean of the School of Engineer-
ing and Applied Science of Princeton University, I have occa-
sion to be involved with an even broader selection of topics
selected for undergraduate independent projects, and it was
in that context some four years ago that I was requested by
one of our very best students to supervise a study of psychic
phenomena. More specifically, this young lady proposed to
bring her talents and background in electrical engineering and
computer science to bear on some experiments in controlled,
low-level psychokinesis. Although I had no previous experience,
professional or personal, with this subject, for a variety of
pedagogical reasons I agreed, and together we mapped a tenta-
tive scholarly path, involving a literature search, visits to appro-
priate laboratories and professional meetings, and the design,
construction, and operation of simple experiments. My initial
oversight role in this project led to a degree of personal involve-
ment with it, and that to a growing intellectual bemusement,
to the extent that by the time this student graduated, I was
persuaded that this was a legitimate field for a high technologist
to study and that I would enjoy continuing to do so.
Manuscript received July 15, 1981; revised October 26, 1981. This
work was supported in part by the McDonnell Foundation, Inc., and
by the John E. Fetzer Foundation, Inc., The Explorers Club, the Insti-
tute of Noetic Sciences, and the Little River Foundation.
The author is Dean of the School of Engineering/Applied Science,
Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544.
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JAHN: PSYCHIC PHENOMENA: ENGINEERING PERSPECTIVE
137
I have since assembled a small professional staff, secured the
requisite funding from a few private sources, and undertaken
a modest experimental program in selected aspects of the field
that could ultimately have some engineering implications. I
should emphasize that my fractional involvement with this
program remains quite minor in comparison to my other re-
sponsibilities, and that the work is still very preliminary and
tentative, but it provides the base of cognizance for my broader
observations on the field as a whole.
The intention of this article is to provide some balanced per-
spective on the modern status of this conceptually and logis-
tically difficult subject. Certainly no field of scholarly endeavor
has proven more frustrating, nor has been more abused and
misunderstood, than the study of psychic phenomena. Dealing
as it does as much with impressionistic and aesthetic evidence
as with analytical substance, and carrying by its nature strongly
subjective and numenistic overtones, it has been incessantly
prostituted by charlatans, lunatics, and sensationalists, catego-
rically rejected by most of the scientific establishment, and
widely misunderstood by the public at large. Interspersed
with this, and greatly encumbered by it, a pattern of legitimate
effort to comprehend and utilize the purported phenomena
has evolved to a point where some dispassionate assessment of
its accomplishments can be attempted. The questions addressed
by this review are whether, once the overburdens of illegitimate
activity and irresponsible criticism are removed, there remains
sufficient residue of valid evidence to justify continued research
and, if so, how this research might most effectively be styled,
facilitated, and evaluated.
Before addressing these issues directly, it may be helpful to
review briefly the historical evolution of the field, its contem-
porary nomenclature and conceptual organization, and the
dimensions of current activity. This can then be followed by
a general overview and critique of the modern research, and
that in turn by more detailed description of a few specific
efforts, drawn primarily from our own work. Toward the
close, we shall attempt to survey several theoretical approaches
to modeling of psychic processes and comment briefly on po-
tential implications and applications of the phenomena. In all
of this, no tone of advocacy is intended, other than for objec-
tive assessment of the evidence in hand.
HISTORY
In a sense, the study of psychic phenomena is one of the
oldest of human endeavors [1]-[7]. As far back as can be
traced, mortal man has pondered the supernatural in one form
or another. Cave drawings at Lascaux and Altamira, circa
20 000 B.C., reflect this preoccupation, and the religious
rites of early societies of both the eastern and western worlds
were heavily loaded with psychic formalisms. The classic
civilizations of Egypt, Greece, and Rome dealt extensively in
psychic process. The Delphic Oracle was politically important
from the earliest Hellenic times to the age of Alexander the
Great, and was consulted on problems as diverse as the proper
measures to stop a plague, the constitutions of Greek city-states,
and the best locations for new colonies. Even Aristotle, one of
the most empirical of the classical philosophers, examined the
causal links in prophetic dreams.
Virtually every form of organized religion practiced by man
has been thoroughly laced with various forms of psychic mech-,
anism. The Bible, like most other basic theological texts, treats
psychic process as a central ingredient, in a tone so matter-of-
fact that one is inclined to believe that people of those times
accepted such events rather routinely. Indeed, the Bible is an
excellent catalog of psychic phenomena; virtually every cate-
gory of effect identified today is illustrated there in one form
or another.
Christian writers and philosophers, from Augustine to the
Reformation, recount many purported instances of psychic
phenomena, usually attributed to visitations of divine grace
or demonic posession. Secular medieval writing also abounds
with supernatural and mystical reference, and even in the
Renaissance period it is still difficult to separate psychic allu-
sion from religious dogma, although both were then translated
into more organized forms in art and literature. Early in the
16th century the celebrated Swiss physician and philosopher
Paracelsus wrote extensively on psychic capabilities and po-
tentialities. In his words:
The mind of man is the microcosmic counterpart of the uni-
versal mind .
.One man may communicate his thoughts
to another with whom he is in sympathy, at any distance however
great it may be, or he may act upon the spirit of another person
in such a manner as to influence his actions . . . . [8].
Perhaps the first major scientific commentaries on the topic
were offered near the turn of the 17th century by Sir Francis Ba-
con, widely regarded as the originator of the scientific method.
In The Advancement of Learning he suggested that "supersti-
tions and the like" should not be excluded from scientific
study, and in his posthumous book, Sylva Sylvarum, he
proposed deliberate investigation of telepathic dreams, psychic
healing, and the influence of "imagination" on the casting of
dice [9]. Some years later, a group of British intellectuals
including Henry More and Joseph Glanvill met regularly to
discuss paranormal topics, and in 1681 Glanvill published
the substance of these studies in a book entitled Saducismus
Triumphatus [10].
Meanwhile, some four centuries of public and church hysteria
over sorcery and witchcraft, as manifested in a sequence of
trials, tortures, and executions, had begun to subside, and by
the mid-18th century, the Roman Church authorized Prospero
Lambertini, who later became Pope Benedict XIV, to carry
out a scholarly investigation of reports of psychic events. His
conclusions, recorded in De Canonizatione [11], were surpris-
ingly unecclesiastical: namely, that 1) psychic experiences
were not necessarily divine miracles, but could occur to "fools,
idiots, melancholy persons, and brute beasts"; 2) apparitions
had little to do with sanctity or demonic entities; 3) prophesy
occurs more often in sleep than in waking; 4) it is difficult for
a prophet to distinguish his own thoughts from extrasensory
messages; and 5) predictions frequently take.symbolic forms.
In all of these, he presaged to some degree modern thoughts
on these topics.
At roughly the same time, Anton Mesmer's discovery of hyp-
nosis opened an alternative route to demonstration and study
of unconscious psychic process that has continued to this day.
Early reports of hypnotized subjects performing telepathic or
clairvoyant tasks were common [12], [13], and although much
of this evidence might now be discounted on the basis of in-
adequate experimental control, interest in hypnosis specifically,
and in various altered states of consciousness generally, as
facilitators of psychic experience persists into some of the
modern experimentation.
Also in this mid-18th century period, a spiritualist move-
ment focused on extrasensory contact with the dead, possibly
influenced by the work of Emanuel Swedenborg [14], [15],
germinated in this country as well as in England, and by the
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 70, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1982
19th century had reached the dimensions of an organized
religion. Symbolic of the popular preoccupation with the topic,
Mary Todd Lincoln was reported to have held séances in the
White House in the early 1860's [16]. A classic two-volume
work by F.W.H. Myers, entitled Human Personality and the
Survival of Bodily Death [17], brought the topic to its acme
of sophistication, but eventually the fanaticism the movement
attracted and its fraudulent exploitation created a negative
attitude in the scholarly community which prevails yet today.
Despite these millennia of human concern with the paranor-
mal, orderly and organized scholarly search for verification and
understanding of psychic phenomena began only a century
ago, with the establishment in London in 1882 of the Society
for Psychical Research, in whose Proceedings appeared the first
formal publication of controlled experiments in telepathy and
clairvoyance [13], [18], [19]. Three years later the counter-
part organization in this country, the American Society for
Psychical Research, was founded in Boston by several distin-
guished scientists and philosophers. Because of financial
difficulty, this shortly merged with the British group, but re-
emerged in 1905 as a separate entity with its own professional
journal, and has continued as such to the present [20].
Although the SPR attracted a barrage of criticism from the
scientific and intellectual communities, it also attracted
significant participation of eminent scholars from established
fields. Numbered among its presidents are three Nobel Lau-
reates, ten Fellows of the Royal Society, one Prime Minister,
and a substantial list of physicists and philosophers, including
Henry Sidgwick, Frederic W. H. Myers, Lord Rayleigh, Sir J. J.
Thomson, William McDougall, Edmund Gurney, Sir William
Crookes, Sir William Barrett, Henri Bergson, Arthur, Earl of
Balfour, Gardner Murphy, G. N.M. Tyrell, Charles Richet,
Gilbert Murray, and one of the most articulate contributors to
the evolution of critical thought on this topic in this period,
the Harvard psychologist and philosopher, William James.
One of the founders of the ASPR, James wrote extensively
and eloquently on behalf of objective and disciplined study of
psychic phenomena [21]-[25] :
Any one with a healthy sense for evidence, a sense not methodi-
cally blunted by the sectarianism of 'science,' ought now, it
seems to me, to feel that exalted sensibilities and memories,
veridical phantasms, haunted houses, trances with supernormal
faculty, and even experimental thought-transference, are natural
kinds of (phenomena) which ought, just like other natural events,
to be followed up with scientific curiosity [25].
Entering the 20th century, a new perspective on psychic phe-
nomena was provided by the emergence of psychology as a
scholarly discipline, and especially by the early efforts in clinical
psychology and psychoanalytic therapy. The patriarch of this
evolution, Sigmund Freud, was a member of the SPR and con-
tributed, albeit somewhat reluctantly, to its publications [26],
[27]. His recognition and exploration of the unconscious
mind and of the function of dreams prompted Myers to suggest
a possible explication of various psychic effects which is still
of theoretical value [17]. Freud's interest in parapsychology
increased toward the end of his life, and he is reported to have
conceded informally that were he to begin his career anew, he
would focus on this topic.
.
Freud's former protegé, Carl Jung, who had written his Ph.D.
thesis on the psychology of occult phenomena, pursued ex-
ploration of the unconscious to deeper dimensions of para-
normal experience, publishing widely on such subjects as telep-
athy, mediumship, synchronicity, the collective unconscious,
and theoretical models of psychic process [28]-[30]. In
Memories, Dreams, Reflections, he stated:
... the relationship between doctor and patient, especially
when a transference on the part of the patient occurs, or a more
or less unconscious identification of doctor and patient, can lead
to parapsychological phenomena. I have frequently run into this
[30].
Jung's collaboration with the eminent physicist Wolfgang Pauli
on the topic of synchronicity clearly influenced the subsequent
evolution of both careers and of fundamental concepts in both
disciplines [31]. Although much of the established psychologi-
cal community has since rejected parapsychology as a valid
discipline, some interest has been retained by a few clinical
practitioners, presumably because of the demonstrated con-
comitance and similarities of apparent psychic experiences
with certain psychological processes [32], [33].
It was also early in this century that the first organized
academic studies of psychic phenomena were mounted. One
of the more visible of these devolved from gifts and a bequest
from Thomas W. Stanford, brother of the founder of Stanford
University, to endow psychic research at that institution, and
to this day the university provides support of a "psychic research
fellow" and retains a collection of so-called "apports" indicative
of the donor's long personal involvement with the field. Modest
research programs were also undertaken at Harvard and a few
European universities in the first decades of this century, as
evidenced by occasional publications in various established
journals.
The benchmark academic effort, however, germinated at
Duke University in the late 1920's, when William Mc Dougall,
who had been James' successor at Harvard, arrived to chair the
department of psychology and appointed J. B. Rhine and
Louisa Rhine, "to study the claims to scientific value of the
field known as psychical research." Their early tentative
efforts in the study of postmortem survival gradually evolved
into a laboratory for controlled research in "extrasensory per-
ception," as they first termed the process. In this laboratory
were established many of the basic concepts and protocols of
modern psychic research, as well as the first extensive and sys-
tematic data bases of several types of psychic experimentation.
The professional and personal history of the Rhines and their
laboratory is a fascinating saga in its own right, but would take
us too far afield here [34]-[37]. A few excerpts from a 1967
address of J. B. Rhine to the American Psychological Associa-
tion, in which he attempted to summarize his first two decades
of intensive study, give hint of the inherent attractions and
frustrations of this field, and of the man's optimistic vision:
The phenomena that were being studied began to show lawful
interrelations and even a degree of unity. One by one the major
claims, based originally only upon spontaneous human experi-
ences, were subjected to laboratory test and experimentally veri-
fied .... Certain general characteristics of the psi process became
clear during this period. The most revealing of these is the sub-
ject's lack of conscious control over any type of psi ability, a
characteristic which accounts for its elusive nature. It was new
methodological ground, even for psychology .... Also, we were
surprised to find that psi ability is widespread, probably even a
specific human capacity rather than a capability possessed by a
few rare individuals as had been the popular belief. Evidence
that psi is not linked with illness or abnormality was another
welcome advance .... By 1951 ... a healthy young science was
emerging [38].
In 1937, the Rhines began publication of the Journal of
Parapsychology, which remains a leading journal in the field
today. A professional organization calling itself the Parapsy.
chological Association was formed in 1957, and in 1969 was
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accepted as an affiliate by the American Association for the
Advancement of Science.
At the present time, there are eight English language publica-
tions covering this field [39], supplemented by numerous less
formal magazines and countless books of widely varying quality
and relevance. Research activity is reported from some twenty
U.S. universities and colleges and at least as many institutions
in Western Europe [40], but in most cases it is of very small
scale. There are very few academic programs of study, although
some fifty M.A. and Ph.D. theses have been accepted on psychic
topics at reputable universities over the past forty years [41].
Some ten research institutes and private corporations in the
United States have also authorized publications and reports in
the field [42]. The extent of Eastern Bloc and Oriental efforts
[43]-[54] and of classified research in this country are matters
of considerable speculation on which I cannot comment with
authority.
Further review of contemporary programs will be attempted
in subsequent sections, following an outline of modern nomen-
clature and conceptual organization of the topic. In closing this
historical overview, we might simply observe that in many re-
spects the growth pattern of this field resembles that of the
natural sciences in their earliest days, or perhaps even more
the incubation of classical psychology, in terms of the ab-
sence of replicable basic experiments and useful theoretical
models, the low level of financial support and internal profes-
sional coordination, and the low credibility in the academic
establishment and public sectors. Also like those fields, the
survival and early growth of psychic research can largely be
attributed to the efforts of a few scholars of sufficient convic-
tion, stature, and courage to withstand the rejection of the
orthodox communities.
NOMENCLATURE AND CONCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION
Before turning to an assessment of contemporary research,
it may be useful to specify some notation and delineation of
the field, to an extent consistent with the present limited
comprehension of the phenomena. First, let us agree to a
global definition of "psychic phenomena" (frequently denoted
by "psi" or "\") to include all processes of information and/or
energy exchange which involve animate consciousness in a
manner not currently explicable in terms of known science.
Similarly, let "psychic research" imply any scholarly study of
such phenomena employing scientific methodology, as opposed
to any dogmatic, ritualistic, or theological approaches. Within
these definitions, the field may then be roughly divided into
two major categories: extrasensory perception (ESP) and
psychokinesis (PK).
ESP refers generally to the acquisition of information from
sources blocked from ordinary perception. Under this category
are included such subdivisions as telepathy, which refers to
detection of another person's thoughts; clairvoyance, which
refers to contemporary perception of remote physical objects
or events; precognition and retrocognition, which refer to
perception of future events and events in the past not accessible
by normal recollection; and animal ESP, which encompasses a
variety of seemingly inexplicable capabilities, such as homing,
psi-trailing, collective behavior, communication, etc.
PK (occasionally termed telekinesis, or psychoenergetics) re-
fers to a palpable influence of consciousness on a physical or
biological system. The interaction may be deliberate or spon-
taneous, and the energy transfer involved may range from
microscopic disturbance of atomic-level processes, through
macroscopic distortion or levitation of objects, up to some
very drastic "poltergeist" effects. Psychic healing and man-
plant interactions would be two examples of PK in biological
systems.
Note that in its major subdivision into ESP and PK, the field
conforms to two of the main categories of present-day science
and high technology, i.e., that encompassing the extraction, con-
version, transmission, storage, and utilization of information,
and that comprising the same sequence of processing of energy.
Other domains of psychic research can be identified which do
not fit into these major categories of ESP and PK and with which
we shall not be further concerned in this article. Examples
would include research into survival of death, and the family
of "out-of-body experiences (OBE)," including astral projec-
tion, autoscopy, and bilocation. The following table attempts
to summarize the subdivisions in a concise form.
Categories of Psychic Phenomena
I. Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
A. Telepathy
B. Clairvoyance
C. Precognition/Retrocognition
D. Animal ESP
II. Psychokinesis (PK)
A. Physical Systems
B. Biological Systems
III. Survival
A. Reincarnation
B. Apparitions
C. Mediumship
IV. Out-of-Body Experiences (OBE).
Clearly this particular arrangement is neither unique nor
orthogonal. Elements of one category frequently appear in
the context of another, e.g., precognitive clairvoyance; tele-
pathic healing, etc., and occasionally an assignment is ambigu-
ous, e.g., a particular effect may be regarded as precipitated
by PK, or simply to be forecast by precognition. Notwith-
standing, the table may aid in keeping the subsequent illustra-
tions in some order.
PATTERN OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH
By its nature and heritage, modern psychic research remains
rather diffuse and lightly structured, making any attempt to
catalog the work by institution or laboratory, or by tracing
developments of given lines of effort, rather ineffective and pre-
mature. Instead, it may be more useful to comment on the
pattern of attention to this field by academic disciplines, noting
the variations in emphasis, methodology, representation, and
interpretation brought to bear, using specific projects only as
illustrations with no implications of hierarchy or attempt at
completeness. Even in this format, no recitation of specific
research results or conclusions will be attempted, since these
can be misleading or incomprehensible when extracted from
the detailed context of their experimental arrangements and
protocols. In later sections, an effort will be made to follow a
few sample experiments through to their particular results and
conclusions.
By far the most sustained and broadcast attention to this
field has been given by a cadre of scholars with professional
backgrounds in classical psychology, comprising a controversial
subdiscipline termed "parapsychology." This group has tended
to approach the field with the traditional psychological proto-
cols and vocabulary, and to interpret results in the context of
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their clinical, cognitive, and behavioral psychological heritages,
with the natural consequence that they have concentrated
mainly on the ESP category of psychic tasks, although some
PK work dots their recent literature. Perhaps the most exten-
sive class of parapsychological research has attempted to
correlate psychic performance with personality variables. The
age, sex, creativity, openness, hostility, extroversion, motiva-
tion, and intelligence of the participants as indices of ability to
perform ESP tasks have been explored at length, and some sig-
nificant correlations, most notably with positive a priori atti-
tudes toward the tasks and with outgoing, creative personalities,
have been reported from several laboratories. Other studies
have searched for connections between psychic performance
and dream recall, learning and response strategies, memory,
and feedback [55]-[61].
A more aggressive style of parapsychological research has in-
voked a variety of altered states of consciousness in attempts
to enhance psychic process. These have included various natu-
ral and traditional practices, such as sleep, meditation, and pro-
gressive relaxation [62]-[67]; more mechanical sensory in-
hibition strategies such as hypnosis, isolation and "ganzfeld"
[66], [68]-[70]; and a few controversial efforts with drug-
induced states [71]. Physiological correlates have also been
sought, using conventional EEG, GSR, and plethysmographic
equipment to monitor neurological, cardiovascular, and mus-
cular response to psychic effort [35], [72]-[75]. The diffi-
culty of obtaining successful replications of previously positive
results and an observed common tendency of participant per-
formance to deteriorate over time ("decline effect") have led
to systematic study of the role of the experimenter in eliciting
results, i.e., to consideration of the possible influence of the
experimenter's personal attitudes, expectations, and style of
interaction with his subjects, as well as the overall environmental
ambience of his laboratory, on the experimental yield [76]-
[81].
Despite its present recalcitrance toward more systematic
study of psychic phenomena, the richly diverse, rapidly matur-
ing parent field of psychology continues to offer an expanding
array of modern methodologies and models which could be
brought to bear on increasingly sophisticated study of this sub-
ject. Computer-assisted linguistic analyses; psychoneurological
studies of attention, perception, and concept formation; social
learning theory and similar approaches to human interactions;
and the emerging formulations of transpersonal and humanistic
aspects of human consciousness, all bear possible relevance to
comprehension of various aspects of this ultra-difficult step-
child, but at the moment, the low level of financial support,
and negative professional peer pressures have discouraged such
enterprise.
The involvement of physicists in psychic research, while con-
siderably less extensive, has been no less dedicated and no less
controversial. Since the days of Sir Francis Bacon, a number
of noted physicists have made excursions into this field,
usually to the bemusement and ridicule of their colleagues of
the day. One of the most notable of these was Sir William
Crookes, discoverer of the element thallium and pioneer in
the physics of low pressure discharges, whose broadside pro-
fessional and personal battles with the scientific establishment
over this issue make entertaining, and possibly enlightening,
reading [82]. Sir Isaac Newton was intensely involved in the
study of alchemy, including some of its more metaphysical
aspects [83], and as already mentioned, Lord Rayleigh and
J. J. Thomson were active members of the S.P.R.
In more recent years the attention of physicists has influenced
development of the field in at least three ways. First, their in-
terests have focused more on the PK category of problems, i.e.,
the interaction of human consciousness with physical systems,
to balance the predominant ESP interests of the parapsycholo-
gists.
Second, more sophisticated experimental equipment
than has typically been available to the psychological com-
munity has been brought to bear on the identification and
correlation of very low-level physical effects. Third, the tradi-
tional theoretical physics formalisms have been directed to the
proposition of various models of psychic phenomena, from
whence has arisen some hope of establishing the traditional
dialogue between critical experimentation and theoretical
hypothesis essential to any ultimate comprehension and appli-
cation of such phenomena.
Typical of the modern physicist's specific contributions to
the field have been the development and application of a variety
of electronic random event generators (REG) for the purpose
of identifying and correlating PK abilities in human subjects
[84]-[93], and similar application of magnetometers [94],
torsional pendula [95], lasers [96], interferometers [97], and
electronic strain gauges [98], [99] to a variety of other PK
tasks. On the theoretical side, a number of applications of quan-
tum mechanics, statistical thermodynamics, electromagnetic
theory, and other formalisms to the representation of psychic
process have been proposed [100]-[113], and attempts at
some philosophical correlation of the phenomena with other
previously or presently obscure physical processes have been
suggested [114]. Again, despite the open identification of
a few distinguished personalities with such efforts, a more
broadly held categorical rejection of the field has inhibited
much collaborative or systematic attention to it.
Up to this time, the involvement of engineers with psychic
research has been very recent, very sparse, and very much along
the lines of the experimental physicists. Beyond our own
program, which will be outlined in some detail below, I am
aware of only a very few engineering laboratories addressing
any aspects of the field in any substantial and deliberate way
[115]. These have so far tended to concentrate on applied
physics types of experimentation and on aspects of informa-
tion processing, rather than on more empirical technological
applications.
Another community of scholars to influence the pattern of
psychic research comprises the statisticians and other applied
mathematicians and logicians who have been concerned with
the proper evaluation and interpretation of the research data.
In the absence of any experiments displaying rigid causa)
replicability, all of the inferences and hypotheses about psy.
chic phenomena have necessarily been based on either anec
dotal or statistical evidence. The former defy any systematic
representation; the latter are vulnerable to alternative inter
pretations and hence to impressionistic bias and argument.
Early in the emergence of mathematical statistics as ar
integral discipline, S. S. Wilks found himself involved in :
controversy over the validity of the statistical procedures o
early psychic researchers, and published some recommenda
tions for methods that could be applied to telepathy experi
ments [116]. Since that time, much of the commentary fron
the critical community has addressed perceived flaws in the
statistical methodology underlying the experimental evidenc
[117], [118], and the advocate community has reacted b:
paying disproportionate attention to this aspect of their logic
Most of the encyclopaedic references in the field contai:
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substantial components on the statistical methods [119],
and the leading journals regularly display intense dialogues on
specific statistical issues [120]-[124]. At least one of these
journals routinely refers all articles submitted for publication to
a consultant statistician as a part of their review process. A
few illustrations of the statistical questions that can arise in
psychic experiments appear in the detailed examples presented
below.
A number of other disciplines have played roles in the evolu-
tion of the study of psychic process and continue to contribute,
albeit somewhat more peripherally. A succession of philoso-
phers, from Aristotle through James and Bergson to C. D. Broad
in the present era, have mused on these topics [21]-[25],
[125]-[129]. The intersections of the field with anthropology,
theology, and history have been approached from many per-
spectives ranging from aesthetic to analytic, and from dogmatic
to scholarly [130]-[134]. Its relevance to the study and
practice of medicine has been an enduring and intense debate,
focusing in the present day on the propriety and efficacy of
holistic health strategies and psychic healing. Isolated instances
of interest on the part of chemists, biologists, geologists, and
archaeologists can be found, and the application of psychic
techniques in criminology and law enforcement, while less
rigorous than most of the academic efforts, contributes further
anecdotal evidence to the overall data base. In the arts and
humanities, the topic continues to provide stimuli for a variety
of creative compositions.
Still other areas could be cited, but these become progressively
more satellite than central to the task of this paper. Rather
than pursuing this disciplinary survey further, it seems prefer-
able next to focus in greater detail on a few contemporary
studies that can serve to illustrate more specifically the bizarre
phenomena, the awkward and tedious protocols, and the un-
conventional theoretical concepts that arise in this class of
research. Although these will provide a better sense of the
status of the field than any attempt to summarize results from
the diffuse multidisciplinary pattern of effort sketched above,
one general assessment may be useful at this point. Namely,
throughout all of the work just skimmed, and that sharpened
somewhat below, I am aware of no reputable investigator who
has claimed, let alone demonstrated, any psychic experiment
approaching classical scientific replicability. What have been
put forward are a varied assortment of observations, currently
inexplicable in terms of established science, which display cer-
tain common phenomenological and psychological features,
and which could have substantial implications for basic physical
theory and ultimate practical applications. The following ex-
amples are presented in that spirit.
PSYCHOKINESIS
The first group of experiments selected as more detailed illus-
trations of contemporary psychic research are drawn from the
general subdomain of PK. As defined above, this broad cate-
gory of purported psychic phenomena encompasses the possible
influence of human consciousness on the behavior of physical
or biological systems or processes, and comprises several loosely
related classes of effect characterized by different scales of
energy, forms of manifestation, replicability, and statistical be-
havior. Confining attention to interactions with physical objects
or systems, the most popularly publicized class features the de-
formation, levitation, or other macroscopic disturbance of ob-
jects, as commonly propounded by professional performers,
mediums, and various Eastern practitioners [135]-[137]. Al-
though a number of serious efforts have been made to submit
such demonstrations to rigorous scientific testing, these have
tended to yield only equivocal confirmations, fodder for the
critical community, and some embarrassment and frustration
to the investigators.
Of a yet more bizarre nature are the family of very rare and
spectacular "poltergeist" effects, more technically termed
"recurrent spontaneous psychokinesis" (RSPK), wherein are
reported specific major events of levitation, vibration, telepor-
tation, and breakage of a wide range of objects, a variety of
acoustical and electromagnetic phenomena, and various optical
aberrations [138], [139]. For years these phenomena were
naively attributed to manifestations of the spirit world, or return
of the dead to "haunted" houses, and inspired countless horror
movies and pulp-magazine articles. Recently, some order has
been brought to this weird business by systematic surveys of
documented poltergeist cases undertaken by A. R.G. Owen,
W. G. Roll, J. G. Pratt, and others [138]-[142]. In one of
these surveys, 116 cases of reported poltergeist activity, rang-
ing back to the year 1612, were re-examined. Of these, 92
were found to be associated with particular individuals living
in the affected dwelling, most of whom were adolescents, and
most of whom were affected by some neurological/emotional
ailment, most commonly epilepsy. Often a precipitating
traumatic event could be identified which seemed to initiate
the activity, after which the general pattern involved a period
of relatively mild precursor events, a sequence of major dis-
turbances, and a period of "after shocks," extending as much
as several weeks beyond the main events. Controlled experimen-
tation on poltergeist phenomena has proven virtually impossible
because of their infrequent and unpredictable occurrence
pattern and because of the delicate physiological and emotional
situations prevailing in most cases, which have taken precedence
over the technical investigations. Nevertheless, these processes
have retained some fascination because of the magnitude of
the energy transfer involved and because of their apparent
correlation with specific types of individuals and neurological
disorders.
The most systematic and persuasive studies of PK, however,
have dealt with much more modest scales of physical distur-
bance, in some cases reaching down to the atomic level. This
somewhat more viable domain has been addressed by numerous
investigators in various ways, but basically one of two strategies
is followed. In one approach, relatively simple physical systems
are employed-mechanical, electrical, optical, thermal, etc.,-
each of which involves a particular component or process that
is ultra-sensitive to disturbance. The experiment is arranged to
signify such disturbance by a relatively large change in some dis-
play which provides feedback indication to the operator, much
in the spirit of a biofeedback instrument, and simultaneously to
provide some form of permanent data record. Examples of this
class of experiment would include the use of magnetometers,
torsional pendula, optical interferometers, electronic strain
gauges, glow discharges [143], and sensitive thermistors [144].
In the second approach, attempt is made to distort the nor-
mal statistical patterns of various random physical processes on
either a microscopic or macroscopic scale. In a sense, these ex-
periments deal with energy rearrangement within the systems,
i.e., with their information content or entropy, rather than with
energy transfer to the system per se. The earliest versions of
this class employed dice, or other simple mechanical implements
of well-known statistical behavior [37], [92], [145]-[148],
but more recent studies have tended to employ more sophisti-
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FRINGES ON SCREEN
FABRY PEROT ETALON
.
MOVING
PLATE
EXTENDED
LIGHT
SOURCE
LENS
PHOTO
MULTIPLIER
-
PIEZO
TUBE
PIN
HOLE
REFLECTIVE
COATINGS
SCREEN
RAMP DRIVE
CHART RECORDER
Fig. 1. Photograph and schematic of Fabry-Perot interferometer.
cated apparatus, such as electronic REG's like those described
in detail below.
Although the first two categories of PK feature more dramatic
effects and thus have enjoyed greater popular attention, the
smaller scale phenomena seem more amenable to controlled
experimentation and theoretical interpretation, and the re-
mainder of this section deals only with such. Perhaps the most
efficient means of elaborating on this type of research would be
to review briefly the spectrum of such experiments in progress
in our own laboratory, and then to display and attempt to
interpret data from one of them. In so doing, we intend no
neglect of other work noted in the references, but simply deal
from greater familiarity.
As examples of the first class of low-level PK experiment
mentioned above, we have in operation a Fabry-Perot optical
interferometer, a dual-thermistor bridge, and a photoelastic
strain detector. In the interferometer experiment, shown in
the photograph and schematic of Fig. 1, a Coherent Optics
Instrument #360-370, using a diffuse sodium lamp as source,
is adjusted to produce circular fringes on a screen visible to the
operator (Fig. 2). Small changes in the separation of the inter-
ferometer plates cause the fringes to migrate radially inward or
outward. By visual observation of the fringe movement, plate
motions of less than 0.1 wavelength can be readily detected.
Via a pinhole in the screen, the brightness of the central fringe
is recorded by a photomultiplier/chart recorder system at an
order of magnitude higher sensitivity, thereby preserving quan-
titative output data while the operator simultaneously sees an
attractive optical display of his progress for use as feedback.
the fringe pattern in a stated direction relative to the normal
baseline drift of the instrument. The protocols involve rigid
control and monitoring of the environment of the instrument
and surrounding laboratory, and the interspersing of baseline
responses with active PK efforts obtained under otherwise
identical conditions, including the position of the operator and
any other personnel relative to the instrument. In pilot studies
with this device, a variety of fractional-fringe responses were
observed, using several different operators and various initial
interferometer settings. A more formal procedure has since
been developed which provides more precise conditions for
an ongoing series of trials. In this protocol, the central fringe
is set initially on a maximum gradient position between a
bright and dark fringe, and its progress monitored for subse-
quent periods of baseline or PK effort. Encouragingly repli-
cable data have been obtained from a number of different
operators, in the form of chart recordings of 5-min PK trials
with interspersed 5-min baseline drifts of the instrument. Using
computerized graphic, regression, and spectral analyses of the
data, it is possible to discern characteristics in the hierarchy
of trace derivatives and the Fourier spectra which, while not
definitive, display certain recurrent features [97]. No physical
interpretation has been attempted other than to acknowledge
that the observed fringe migrations could also be indicative
of slight changes in the index of refraction of the air in the
plate gap or in the wavelength of the light source, as well as of
a displacement of the plates.
.
The dual-thermistor experiment comprises a much more sen-
sitive version of a multiple-thermistor arrangement on which
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Fig. 2. Interferometer fringe patterns.
As shown in Fig. 3, two Omega Engineering thermistors,
Model UVA 3254, each with its own electronic bridge and volt-
age source, are connected differentially to a Tektronix 1A7A
oscilloscope preamplifier and to a visual feedback display. With
suitable ground planes and cable shielding, sensitivities greater
than 0.001 K are obtainable, and by subtracting the two output
signals the major portion of spurious electrical and mechanical
interference is eliminated. The effects of ambient thermal vari-
ations in the laboratory are essentially excluded by enclosing
each of the thermistors in identical Pyrex flasks immersed in
a large liquid reservoir, in which configuration the undisturbed
system exhibits stable baselines over long periods of time.
Using the same interspersed baseline protocol as in the inter-
ferometer experiment, the task of the operator is to achieve an
increase in the reading of one thermistor with respect to the
other or in some more subtle fashion to alter the PK response
relative to the baseline. Some such effects have indeed been ob-
served, but little systematic data have so far been accumulated
on this experiment.
Also in a preliminary stage is an experiment to monitor in-
ternal strain in a solid specimen via photoelastic optical tech-
niques. Several studies have been reported on the PK deforma-
tion of solids, but most of these have employed conventional
engineering strain gauges or microacoustic sensors as detectors
[98], [99], [135], [149], [150], both of which require sub-
stantial interface electronics before a feedback signal reaches
the operator, leaving unclear the role of the sensor in any pos-
sible PK influence .. Although less sensitive than the electronic
methods, photoelastic techniques have the advantage of relating
the operator more directly to the sensitive element of the ex-
periment via an attractive optical fringe pattern much like that
of the interferometer (Fig. 4). This equipment and technique
may also be applied to a sensitive levitation experiment wherein
Fig. 3. Dual-thermistor apparatus.
the object is suspended on a photoelastic lever arm of suitable
dimensions.
Within the second category of low-level PK experiment, we
are employing or are now constructing several devices based on
random physical processes, some macroscopic in scale, others
deriving from atomic-scale processes. The largest of these in-
volves a 6 X 10 ft apparatus, shown in Fig. 5, which drops some
10 000 & in spheres through a "quincunx" array of 336 nylon
pegs in about 12 min. As a consequence of the multitudinous
collisions with the pegs and with each other, the spheres are dis-
persed into a good approximation of a Gaussian distribution
as they fall into 19 collecting compartments at the bottom.
The goal of the operator is to distort the distribution in some
prescribed fashion to a significant degree compared to empirical
baseline experience. Photodiode counters mounted in funnels
at the entrance to each bin provide real-time digital displays of
the bin populations to supplement the more qualitative feedback
of the growing ball stacks seen by the operator and to provide
quantitative data for on-line statistical analysis. Fig. 5 shows
a typical baseline distribution for this device and a distorted
distribution obtained in a particular PK effort. Full statistical
analysis of the significance of any particular achieved pattern
is a challenging problem in its own right, since it must deal
with a combination of 19 bin populations, each of which has
its own empirical baseline mean and standard deviation, all
constrained by total ball count.
A somewhat similar experiment, not yet refined, employs a
device which allows small metallic or dielectric spheres to
bounce on an optically flat, precisely horizontal circular plate
of glass, which is oscillated by a vibration coil at frequencies
from 10 Hz to 20 000 Hz. In the absence of any external dis-
turbance, a sphere started at the center of the plate executes a
random walk toward the outside edge, arriving with equal prob-
ability at any azimuth. Since the sphere may make as many as
105 collisions in the process, it is vulnerable to statistical distor-
tion of its trajectory and consequent terminus. The task of the
operator is preferentially to direct the sphere to a prescribed
terminal quadrant.
In an attempt to intervene with a random physical process at
the atomic level, we have constructed a large glow-discharge
device whose luminous patterns are indicative of the mean free
path of the current-carrying electrons against inelastic excita-
tion collisions with the background gas. This device, shown in
Fig. 6, presents a 36-in X 2-in diam cylindrical glow marked by.
a sequence of bright and dark zones along its positive column
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Fig. 4. Photoelastic stress pattern.
"NORMAL" DISTRIBUTION
DISTORTED DISTRIBUTION
Fig. 5. Gaussian analog device and distributions.
typical of de discharges in a given range of gas pressure and
terminal voltage. The number and locations of these striations
are sensitive to the electron inelastic mean free path, which in
Fig. 6. Glow discharge experiment.
turn depends on the gas type and density, the electron tempera
ture, and the local electric field. Striation position is monitore(
by photoelectric detectors, and the goal of the operator is to
expand or contract the pattern on demand, to a significan
extent compared to the normal background jitter and drift
Protocols are much the same, output data take the same ger
eral form, and are analyzed by the same algorithms as in th
interferometer and photoelastic experiments.
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PRECISION
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+ 3602 A15124
SAMPLE
PULSE
GENERATOR
Fig. 7. Functional diagram of REG.
(a)
C
€
(b)
(c)
Fig. 8. REG waveforms: (a) Filtered noise. (b) Clipped noise.
(c) Sampling pulses.
A number of other atomic-scale random system PK experi-
ments are under consideration, design, or construction, involv-
ing such processes as information storage on a microelectronic
chip, the spontaneous decay of phosphorescent surfaces, lam-
inar to turbulent transition in a fluid stream, atomic and molec-
ular resonators, and resonant acoustical or electrical cavities,
but none of these is far enough advanced to merit description
here. Rather, we shall concentrate for the remainder of this
section on a more detailed presentation of our most serviceable
experiment, and the one on which we have the largest data
base, the electronic REG.
RANDOM EVENT GENERATOR EXPERIMENTS
REG's have been the most widely used and most productive
facilities for experimentation with low-level PK. Although a
broad variety of such devices exist, most involve four conceptu-
ally and functionally separable components: an electronic noise
source; a sampling system which examines the noise at pre-
scribed intervals and prepares an output pulse train correspond-
ing to the samples thus obtained; a system which analyzes the
pulse train in accordance with preset instructions and prepares
suitable output for a feedback system; and the feedback dis-
play itself, which informs the operator of the results of the
`sampling process.
The particular version we have employed utilizes a packaged
commercial noise source module based on a solid-state junction
and precision preamplifier (Elgenco Model 3602A15124), but
modules employing radioactive decay units or glow discharges
can be readily substituted. This source produces a random noise
spectrum up to several megahertz, which our logic circuit first
filters to a flat spectrum from 50 to 20 000 Hz, then amplifies
and clips to the flat-topped profile shown in Figs. 7 and 8. This
is then sampled by a regular train of gate pulses, yielding a cor-
responding random succession of positive and negative output
pulses indicative of the sign of the noise at the time of sampling,
and these are then counted. Since the average time between
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empera-
nitored
or is to
nificant
d drift.
me gen-
s in the
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13
+
DISPLAYS
+/-

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 70, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1982
Int.
** SIGNAL SELECTOR
INTERNAL
NOISE
SOURCE
SAMPLING
CIRCUIT
SAMPLE
CONTROL
CIRCUIT
N-SAMPLE
EVENT COUNTER
AND LED DISPLAY
Analog Output
Test
0
EVENT
MODE
SELECTOR
Set N
External Noise Source
Train of
N Pulses
+ 1.0 Volt
Slave Display Unit
+
Gnd
-
Test
Switch
SIGNAL
LEVEL
METER
GATE
- 1.0 Volt
Gole ON
SAMPLING
RATE
GENERATOR
Int
EVENT COUNTER
AND LED DISPLAY
Duplicate
TRIAL COUNTER
AND LED DISPLAY
Rote
Control
Ext.
Print Commond
SCALE-OF - 50
COUNTER
START
CONTROL
CIRCUIT
M
External Pulse
Generator
( 5 micro sec.width)
(Programmable)
Manual Stort or
Automatic Repeat
(50 Times )
PRINTER
TRIAL
COUNTER
Stort Switches
Remote
Reset to
Printer
Triel Counter
Σ
Reset Signal
To Event
Counters
AIM 65
POP 11/45
TERAK
Reset
Fig. 9. Electrical schematic of REG.
Fig. 10. REG arrangement.
zero crossings of the clipped noise waveform is about 30 us,
sampling rates to about 15 000/s can be tolerated with statis-
tical independence.
The full functional array is sketched in Fig. 9, and a photo-
graph of the boxed units in Fig. 10. By panel setting the
sampler may be instructed to take "trials" of 100, 200, or 2000
samples, at a frequency of 1, 10, 100, 1000, or 10 000/s. The
counting system may be set to count only positive pulses, only
negative pulses, or to alternate positive and negative counting
on successive samples. The alternating positive/negative mode
effectively factors out any systematic bias in the noise source,
and is the mode employed in all the experiments reported here.
The counting results are displayed by LED arrays tracking both
the running count of each trial and the concurrent mean rela-
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Analog
Output
Gate OFF
on
of
CUMULATIVE
UP/DOWN
COUNTER AND
LED DISPLAY
EVENT
COUNTER
Ponel
START
SCALE -OF-N
COUNTER
Print
Signal
Event
146

...
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JAHN: PSYCHIC PHENOMENA: ENGINEERING PERSPECTIVE
TABLE I
REG 200-SAMPLE DATA SUMMARY
Series
Instr.
No.
Trials
Mean
Std.
Dev.
t-score
n+/n_
REG I
B.L.
12 000
100.009
6.994
0.144
0.443
5678/5611
PK +
4 550
100.264
7.037
2.528
0.006
2230/2056
PK"
3 850
99.509
7.063
-4.313
10-5
1716/1926
Δ ΡΚ
8 400
4.890
5 × 10-7
REG II
B.L.
2 500
100.033
6.875
0.239
0.406
1188/1179
PK +
1 950
100.247
6.849
1.590
0.056
916/919
PK-
1 800
99.597
6.775
-2.526
0.006
797/902
A PK
3 750
2.920
0.002
REG III
B.L.
3 500
99.977
7.013
-0.193
0.424
1658/1655
PK +
2 400
100.227
6.821
1.634
0.051
1150/1086
PK-
2 600
99.736
7.026
-1.918
0.028
1192/1270
4 PK
5 000
2.507
0.006
E REG I
B.L.
18 000
100.006
6.981
0.115
0.454
8524/8445
II
PK +
8 900
100.250
6.938
3.403
3 × 10-4
4296/4061
III
PK-
8 250
99.600
6.989
-5.203
10-7
3705/4098
Δ ΡΚ
17 150
6.107
5 × 10-10
REG Ia
no B.L.
PK+
2 150
100.206
7.091
1.340
0.088
1059/993
954/1019
PK"
2 100
99.945
6.937
-0.365
0.358
A PK
4 250
1.213
0.113
REG IIa
B.L.
5 000
100.186
6.974
1.882
0.030
2367/2337
PK +
2 000
100.117
7.041
0.746
0.228
955/950
PK"
1 750
99.941
6.898
-0.360
0.359
803/839
A PK
3 750
0.772
0.220
EREG I
B.L.
23 000
100.045
6.980
0.978
0.164
10891/10782
Ia
PK+
13 050
100.223
6.979
3.644
10-4
6310/6004
IIa
III
PK-
12 100
99.709
6.968
-4.596
2 × 10-6
5462/5956
4 PK
25 150
5.828
3 × 10-9
tive to a preset origin and are permanently recorded on a strip
printer. For most of the experiments described below, an AIM-
65 microprocessor interface is also utilized to insert the trial-
count data on-line into processing routines supported by a
TERAK Model 8510 used as a terminal and PDP 11/45 and
VAX 750 employing a UNIX operating system programmed in
C language. All of the sampling, counting, and display functions
can be simply checked by referring them to an internal or ex-
ternal calibrated pulse train generator.
The device also has a manual/automatic option, whereby it
will either collect its trial samples only when a panel switch
or parallel remote switch is pushed, or it will repeat that process
for 50 trials automatically once activated by the switch. The
operator thus has the option of triggering each trial or of
initiating a repetitive flow of 50 such trials with no further
intervention.
The experiments reported here were performed by a single
operator, seated in front of the device with the remote initia-
tion switch in hand and the LED count indicators and TERAK
terminal display visible. This operator attempted, on instruc-
tion or volition, to distort the trial counts either toward higher
or lower values. The several options of sampling number, sam-
pling frequency, +/- polarity, and manual/automatic sequenc-
ing were variously determined by random instruction, operator
preference, or experimental practicality, and recorded before
the beginning of each trial. Clearly, the full matrix of such pos-
sibilities could not be explored, and for our first sequence of
experiments only 200-sample trials were used, at 100 or 1000
counts/s, all counted in the +/- alternating mode. The auto-
matic/manual and high/low options were more thoroughly
tested, in both the volitional and instructed choice modes.
Fifty trials of the 200-sample units comprised a test run, and
data from these were processed individually and in many concat-
enations via a statistics package in the UNIX system developed
specifically for this task. Calculated were the mean, standard
deviation, range, kurtosis, skew coefficient, z-score, t-score,
x2 goodness-of-fit with both 8 and 16 degrees of freedom, and
the corresponding one-tailed probabilities against chance of the
last four measures. Applied to earlier and ongoing baseline
data, this analysis confirmed that in undisturbed operation this
REG conforms very well to a Gaussian approximation to the
appropriate full binary statistics.
The major portion of the results listed below comprised three
separate experimental series, extending over fifteen months,
labeled REG I, REG II, and REG III, respectively. All other
data acquired under slightly less formal conditions of protocol
during this period, included for completeness, are grouped
under two other series, labeled REG Ia and Ila, respectively.
Details of these series protocols, calibration tests, and their in-
dividual results are available in the reference [93]. All told,
over 25 000 active PK trials were obtained, corresponding to
more than 5 000 000 binary events.
Table I summarizes all of the baseline and PK data acquired
during these five experimental series. A total of 23 000 base-
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only
Iting
10de
irce,
iere.
both
rela-
-
1982
147
II
ut

-
-
148
8
% OF TOTAL TRIALS
6
n = 23000
4
2
60
80
100
120
140
COUNT
Fig. 11. REG 200-sample baseline data on theory.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 70, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1982
3000
2000
P+ 1.05
1000
BASELINE
Ok“
Pi1.05
.- 1000
g
1
-2000
PK*
C
-3000
f
I
-- 10-
-Ho-
-4000%
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
NUMBER OF TRIALS
Fig. 14. REG cumulative deviations of PK + and PK - 200-sample data.
6000
5000
CUMULATIVE DEVIATION
4000
3000
PL1.05
2000
st
S
t
0
-1000
+
O
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000 14000
NUMBER OF PAIRS OF TRIALS
Fig. 15. REG cumulative deviations in direction of effort of all 200-
sample data.
8
% OF TOTAL TRIALS
PK"-"
-PK+
4
2
0
60
80
120
140
COUNT
Fig. 13. REG PK+ and PK- 200-sample data fitted curves.
0.8
PK +
AVERAGE DEVIATION
0.4
p =. 05
CUMULATIVE
O
- 0.44
PK-
PT =. 05
-0.8
O
2000
4000
6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
NUMBER OF TRIALS
Fig. 16. REG cumulative average deviations of PK + and PK - 200-sample
data.
more detailed statistical tests performed, no significant distor-
tion of the frequency-of-count distributions other than the
shifting of the means has occurred. In other words, the ob-
served effect is to shift the total distributions intact, rather
than to distort any of their higher moments significantly. This
result clearly has felicitous implications for this class of experi-
mentation, since it allows much simpler and faster data collec-
tion and analysis than might otherwise have been anticipated.
It is illustrative to exhibit the overall data behavior via graphs
of the cumulative deviation of the trial score means versus the
accumulated data base. Fig. 14 shows such a representation
for the total data pool plotting PK+, PK", and baseline data
with reference to cumulative 0.05 confidence levels. Fig. 15
uses a similar representation for compounding the PK + and PK"
data in a "direction of effort" cumulative deviation. (Had REG
Ia and IIa been excluded from these data, the overall slopes
would have been slightly more severe and uniform.)
Alternatively, the cumulative data may be presented in terms
of the progressions of the average deviations from the theoreti-
cal mean, as shown in Fig. 16, where the stochastic variations
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b
tl
g
SC
li
a
t
d
V
Se
d
d
ti
a
W
tl
Vi
V
0
a
p
at
d
h
0
er
ar
fl
N
ti
to
W
tl
.
1
1.
1
.
1
.
I
f
.
1.
.
N
ober
60
80
100
120
140
COUNT
Fig. 12. REG PK+ and PK- 200-sample data on theory.
PK+
0
t
p
e
0
h
b
b
te
h
1
-
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.
1
· PK+ (n=13050)
o PK" (n =12100)
6
% OF TOTAL TRIALS
4
BASELINE
1000
line trials were taken under a variety of conditions before,
during, and after the active PK trials. Their overall mean was
100.045, and their standard deviation 6.980, compared with
the values of 100.000 and 7.071 predicted by the theoretical
Gaussian approximation to the appropriate binary statistical
distribution. As shown in Fig. 11, the frequency of count dis-
tribution conformed very well with the theoretical curve.
The results of the PK trials are also presented in Table I and
in Figs. 12 and 13. Briefly, the 13 050 high-instruction trials,
denoted PK+, yielded a mean of 100.23 and a standard devia- .
tion of 6.979; the 12 100 low-instruction trials, denoted PK",
yielded a mean of 99.704 and a standard deviation of 6.968.
The one-tailed probability of chance occurrence of the former,
computed from t-score, is about 10-4; of the latter, about
2 X 10-6. The combined probability of the split, i.e., of this
total "direction-of-effort" success, denoted APK, is about 3 X
10-9. ( A number of more elaborate statistical measures have
been applied to these data; the results are not qualitatively
changed thereby.)
As is evident from Figs. 12 and 13, and as is verified by the
J
0
tì
CUMULATIVE DEVIATION
& PK

32
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149
of the small data bases are seen to damp out to well-defined
terminal values after several thousand trials.
The PK+ and PK" effects also manifest themselves in terms
of the number of trial means recorded above and below the
theoretical value. As displayed in Table I, PK+ efforts were
generally characterized by an excess of trial means above
100.00 and PK- efforts by an excess below. The total con-
catenations in these terms are significant at a level of 0.003
for PK+ and 3 X10-5 for PK".
The ensemble of results acquired in these experiments dis-
play certain instructive general features:
1) The importance of accumulating very large data bases
when dealing with such marginal phenoma is emphasized by
the relative scales of the statistical vagaries and the broader
systematic trends in Figs. 14-16. Although the trends are
established early in the data collection sequence, unambigu-
ous departures from the accumulated vagaries of chance be-
havior occur only well into the total 25 000 trial, 5 000 000
bit, sequence.
2) Over this large a data base, there arises some quantitative
statistical regularity in the PK process, epitomized by the mean
slopes of the cumulative deviations in Figs. 14 and 15 and by
the terminal values of the average deviations in Fig. 16. Traced
back to the elemental binary samples, these values imply direc-
ted inversions from chance behavior of about one or one and a
half bits in every one thousand or, alternatively, of 0.2 or 0.3
bits per trial.
0
200-
3) The differences between the somewhat larger values for
the PK" deviation and the lesser values for PK+ are only mar-
ginally significant on this data base, but prevail rather uniformly
throughout all the test series. The suspicion that these reflect
some subtle bias in the REG itself is not supported by the base-
line data, which concatenate to a grand mean very slightly
above the theoretical value.
One of the primary goals of such controlled PK studies at
this early phase in the understanding of the phenomena is to
develop experiments of sufficient yield and replicability that
various parametric correlations may be systematically explored,
thereby hopefully separating the consequential from the incon-
sequential factors. The experiments outlined above hold some
promise of serviceability for this purpose, but a great deal of
data will need be accumulated to establish any such correla-
tions. Four classes of parameters could be considered: those
associated with the experimental equipment; those associated
with the operator's physiological and emotional characteristics;
those associated with the operator's technique; and various en-
vironmental factors not directly associated with either. So far
we have accumulated only small amounts of data from other
operators, and given the general indication #1 above regarding
the importance of large data bases, we can make no statement
about the generality or peculiarity of our principal operator's
performance. Similarly, we have attempted no systematic vari-
ation of external environmental factors, and although test times,
dates, durations, and laboratory temperature, pressure, and
humidity have been routinely recorded, we cannot comment
on the importance of this category of parameter.
On the matter of operator technique, it should first be re-
emphasized that the sole formal difference between the PK+
and PK- trials is the specified intention of the operator to in-
fluence the device to generate numbers in the assigned direction.
No other variation in protocol is permitted, save those subjec-
tive differences in psychological attitude the operator chooses
to invoke. Although no records of such aspects were kept,
this operator, who claimed no special talent for this or any
other psychic task, reported that any conscious variations in
psychological strategy, such as focus of visual attention, or
intensity of concentration or desire, did not appear to have
any evident effect on the yield. Similarly, differences in the
laboratory ambience, such as the lighting level, background
noise, or peripheral presence of other persons, did not seem
to influence this operator's performance. When queried about
any impressionistic sense of the interaction process, the opera-
tor alluded to a "resonance or identification with the system,
leading to a loss of self-awareness similar to that experienced
in a game, a movie, or some creative occupation." Clearly this
class of parameter will be the most difficult to specify and cor-
relate, and we are far from any definition of its mechanisms.
With respect to experimental options on the equipment pa-
rameters, we can make very limited explorations with the
acquired data base. Briefly, binary correlations of the data for
the 100/1000 counting rate option, for the volitional/instructed
direction of effort, and for automatic/manual sampling give
little indication of importance of such factors in the overall
performance. Each category shows clear and significant separa-
tion of the means for the PK+ and PK" efforts, with little to
choose between the t-scores for the various categories. Thus,
at least for the data base at hand, the process seems insensitive
to these particular experimental parameters.
We have also attempted correlation in terms of the trial-
number sequence. With cognizance of the ubiquitous "de-
cline effect" which is reported over a broad range of psychic
experimentation, we have prepared an algorithm which cross-
concatenates from the data base all scores achieved on the
first trials of the experimental run, all achieved on the second
trials, etc., up to the fiftieth, and arrays those fifty means in a
graphical form. The results show little systematic profile of
yield versus trial number. A similar exercise has been per-
formed to cross-concatenate the data by run-number over the
various series to search for a decline effect on that larger scale,
but again no significant correlation is found within this data
base.
The most extensive parametric exploration attempted to date
was motivated by the apparently fundamental question implicit
in general conclusion 2) above, i.e., whether the magnitude of
the observed effect correlates with the total number of bits
processed, or with the number of trials. To explore this aspect,
the same operator has performed a second ensemble of experi-
mental series totaling 25 000 trials, all consisting of 2000-sam-
ple bits rather than 200. As before, various combinations of
the automatic/manual and volitional/instructed modes were
employed, but to speed data acquisition and reduce the opera-
tor's tedium, only the 1000/s counting rate was used. This,
coupled with the more elegant data processing capabilities that
had evolved over the preceding experiments, allowed this
sequence to be completed in less than six months.
The results of this effort, as presented in Table II and Figs.
17 and 18, are curiously ambivalent. As before, there is clear
and significant separation of the means of the PK+ and PK"
efforts, and the baseline is well behaved. As could be antici-
pated from the larger standard deviation of the 2000-bit data,
the cumulative traces display larger statistical fluctuations and
require a larger number of trials to settle toward well-defined
terminal values. To the quantitative precision allowed by this
data base, these terminal values appear not to endorse any
simple bit-level hypothesis in that they fail by a factor of 6 or
7 to achieve the one or one and one-half bits per thousand
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1
10
tta.
ample
istor-
n the
:e ob-
ather
This
xperi-
collec-
Ited.
graphs
us the
tation
e data
ig. 15
id PK
d REG
slopes
1 terms
teoreti-
iations

1
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 70, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1982
TABLE II
SUMMARY OF REG 2000-SAMPLE DATA
Instr.
No ..
Trials
Mean
Std.
Dev.
t-score
Pt
n+/n_
B.L.
12 500
1000.016
21.879
0.079
0.468
6157/6088
PK +
12 200
1000.380
21.906
1.914
0.028
6092/5897
PK"
12 800
999.569
22.005
-2.216
0.013
6218/6351
Δ ΡΚ
25 000
-
2.920
0.002
7500
PK +
CUMULATIVE DEVIATION
3750
PŁ 1.05
O
BASELINE
-PF -. 05
- 3750
PK
- 7500
0
2000
4000
6000
8000 10000
12000
14000
NUMBER OF TRIALS
Fig. 17. REG cumulative deviations of PK + and PK - 2000-sample data.
inversion accomplished in the 200-bit trials. However, the
new values are larger on a per-trial basis by a factor of about
1.7, which is not negligible in this context. Again, much more
data of this sort will be required to come to grips with this class
of correlation.
In addition to continuing study of this sample-size parameter,
our next generation of experiments employs a number of other
operators to explore the variation of yield with operator type
and technique, and a number of alternate noise sources, includ-
ing pseudo-random sources, in an attempt to localize the effect
somewhat and thereby to narrow the range of future experi-
ments and models.
The results outlined above are by no means the only conse-
quential REG data available for contemplation. Of particular
interest are a variety of experiments reported by Schmidt,
some employing pseudo-random as well as physically random
sources, and others using taped source outputs recorded well
in advance of their presentation to the operator [87]-[90].
In another approach, May has recently reported an REG study
using electronic gear specifically designed to preclude very
subtle artifacts that might confound the effects of interest,
and includes in his paper a thorough search of the modern
REG literature [91].
In addition, considerable research in the parapsychological
community has been performed using REG devices as drivers
for various forced-choice video games employed in both the
PK and clairvoyance modes [151]. Many of these claim sig-
nificant yields, but rarely are the data-bases sufficiently large
to present quantitative trends, or to allow much parameteric
correlation.
Regardless of their particular implementation, any potential
vulnerability of random electronic noise sources to incidental
or intentional distortion by the means under study here would
seem to be of some interest to a number of engineering com-
munities, given the proliferate application of such devices in
various functional and computational capacities.
REMOTE PERCEPTION
As a second example of contemporary psychic research that
has displayed some substantial yield and interlaboratory repli-
0.6
AVERAGE DEVIATION
0.3
PK+2000
CUMULATIVE
01
PK+200
PK 200
- 0.3
PK 2000
-0.6
-0.9
O
2000 4000
6000 8000
10000 12000 14000
NUMBER OF TRIALS
Fig. 18. REG cumulative average deviations of PK+ and PK- 2000-
sample data compared to 200-sample data.
cability, we select a topic which has come to be called "remote
perception" or "remote viewing." The basic concept of this
process is far from new; in the early 16th century, Paracelsus
stated it unequivocally:
Man also possesses a power by which he may see his friends and
the circumstances by which they are surrounded, although such
persons may be a thousand miles away from him at that time [8].
In its modern form, the experimental protocol requires a
"percipient" to describe, by free-response oral or written
narrative or drawing, a remote, unknown target location at
which is stationed an "agent," with whom there is no normal
sensory mode of communication during the course of the
experiment. The targets are usually selected by some prescribed
random process from a previously prepared pool of targets,
which is unknown to any of the active participants. The
quality of the perception is assessed by various impressionistic
or analytical judging methods described below.
Historically, this experiment has evolved from several genera-
tions of free-response clairvoyance and telepathy experiments,
which were found to have certain advantages over the more
traditional "forced-choice" ESP tasks, such as the Xener card
identifications of the early Rhine laboratory [34]-[37], in
displaying less tendency for percipient stagnation and "decline-
effects" over extended testing, and in maintaining some of the
spontaneity of anecdotal clairvoyance experiences. One of
the earliest detailed reports of such free-response studies appears
as a book by Upton Sinclair entitled Mental Radio, which
features an equivocal foreword by Albert Einstein [152].
More modern work of this class was performed at the Mai-
monides Medical Center by Ullman and Krippner in the 1960's,
and reported in their book Dream Telepathy [64]. From this
work emerged the so-called "ganzfeld" or sensory inhibition
perception studies of Honorton and many others which pro-
pounded the desirability of emotionally stimulating tasks to
which the subjects could relate in a personal and spontaneous
fashion [66], [67].
The contemporary version of the remote perception protocol
was introduced in a sequence of publications by Targ and Put-
hoff [94], [153]-[156], which prompted a substantial num-
ber of attempted replications [157]-[174], and considerable
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Fig. 19. Remote perception target: Picnic area, Feathered Pipe Ranch
near Helena, MT; 12:00 N MDT, Sept. 5, 1978.
Percipient transcript: Princeton, NJ; 8:30 A EDT, Sept. 5, 1978:
"Outdoors. .. open landscape-large areas of trees-pines? inter-
spersed with open fields. Single road. High overcast, cool, breezy.
(Agent) in dark jacket talking to someone near road-possibly turn-
out area or picnic area. Assembly of stones-possibly pylon or, marker
or wall. Large sign somewhere."
critical comment. The most extensive of the replications, con-
ducted by Dunne and Bisaha in the Chicago area over the period
1976 to 1979, comprised 40 formal trials to which were applied
157 independent transcript judgings, 84 of which assigned first-
place rank to the proper targets [161], [162].
The type of data which can be acquired in such studies is
illustrated in the sequence of Figs. 19-22. In each case is
shown a photograph of a particular target, selected by some
random process, which was visited by an agent on the date
and time indicated. Below each figure is a portion of the cor-
responding percipient transcript, with the time and location of
the perception effort also noted. The examples shown are
drawn from a variety of experimental series conducted under
somewhat different protocols, but serve to display some of the
characteristics which commonly appear in the more successful
efforts:
1) The overall ambience of the scene is accurately perceived.
2) Certain details are accurately identified; others are mis-
construed or totally ignored.
3) A feature which is impressive to the agent is not necessarily
so to the percipient, and vice versa.
4) The composition of the scene may be distorted by errors
in scale, relative positions of key objects, or total right -.
left inversions.
5) The aesthetic aspects, such as colors, general shapes, degree
of activity, noise level, climate, and other ambient features
tend to be more accurately perceived than more analytical
details such as number, size, or relative positions.
6) The perception is not necessarily centered on the defined
target, and may even provide accurate information on ad-
jacent areas external to the target, unnoticed by the agent.
7) The fidelity of the perception seems to be independent of
the remoteness of the target, up to distances of several
thousand miles.
8) The time of the perception effort need not coincide with
the time the agent is at the target. Perceptions obtained
several hours, or even days, prior to the agent's visit to the
target, or even prior to selection of the target, display at
least as high a yield as those performed in real time.
Fig. 20. Remote perception target: Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton,
NJ; 2:15 P EDT, Aug. 28, 1980.
Percipient transcript: Princeton, NJ; 12:15 P EDT, Aug. 28, 1980:
"Some kind of courtyard, enclosed by buildings on two sides. Paths
or walks around periphery, a statue or monument of some kind in the
middle surrounded by grass. Could be a fountain; I have the feeling
of water. Trees or tall hedges on one side, Fairly quiet, but some
people walking around. Not sure of sound, the idea of a fountain sug-
gests sound of water but I'm not sure I really hear it or not."
The philosophical and practical implications of items 7 and 8
are clearly substantial. If the data are valid, the most parsimo-
nious explications would require access of the percipient's con-
sciousness to other portions of the space-time grid than that in
which it is currently immersed, or that it can reach by normal
processes of communication or memory. These same items
also seriously delimit the potential physical mechanisms for
such access.
Rigorous evaluation of the data from experiments such as
these is confounded by the psychological components of the
process, by the impressionistic nature of the information in-
volved, and by the inevitable subjective biases of all those par-
ticipating in the experiment. Doubtless the earliest and most
primitive assessments were informal a posteriori exchanges of
impressions about the target between agent and percipient
which, although possibly informative and stimulating to them,
lacked any quantitative basis and held little scientific credibility.
In a somewhat less vulnerable strategy invoked more recently,
the percipient, after completing his transcript, visited several
possible targets drawn from the pool and attempted to identify
the one he perceived, or to rank-order each of them in terms
of conformity to his earlier perception. Statistical arguments
could then be applied to these ranks to estimate the likelihood
that information about the target had been acquired by means
other than chance [175]-[177].
In an attempt to separate the possible ESP functioning of the
percipient during the visitation and ranking process from his
original perception effort, the protocol subsequently evolved to
invoke independent judges who were provided copies of the
various transcripts and taken to the target sites to perform their
preferential rankings. Even in this form, the technique has
been criticized for possible sensory cuing of the judges [178]
and has tended in turn to be replaced by a protocol wherein
the judges perform their ranking on the basis of photographs
of the targets, usually taken by the agent at the time of the
trial. In one such version, the judges, who have not been in-
volved in any earlier portion of the experiment, are asked to
compare a single percipient transcript with agent-generated
descriptions and photographs of a number of alternative targets,
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Fig. 21. Remote perception target: Rockefeller Chapel, Chicago, IL; 2:15 P CDT, June 10, 1977.
Percipient transcript: Mundelein College, Chicago, IL; 1:00 P CDT, June 10, 1977:
"I'm seeing a heavy wooden door with a black bolt on it rounded at the top in a dome fashion. I have a feeling of opening the doors and
looking in and it's dark inside. My feeling at the moment is that it's a building like a church. And I can see the pews. There is some light but
I feel basically a kind of darkness in there and a quietness. I'm seeing little turrets, very elaborate-looking little turrets, a whole series of them
like across the entire top of the building and there's a straight line and then up to a triangle. I have a definite image of an angel-type of statue,
marble, flowing robes. I see the door again and I see some stairs. I think it's very high. I'm getting some stained-glass windows that are arch
shape and they would look to be dark blue. Whatever the architecture of it the ornamentation on the building is quite elaborate and it looks
like there's a section on the top with the turrets and then below that there are some other kinds of designs but more linear designs.
"I again have a vision of the doors and then maybe a ledged area or an area of the building that protrudes with some kind of a design and
there maybe even be a couple of those before you get to the top part which is either triangular or rounded. There is filigree work, little filigree
turrets or something. And within the building there is a sort of a continuation of arches, but possibly they meet columns or something like
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Fig. 22. Remote perception target: Danube River, Bratislava, Czecho-
slovakia; 3:00 P European Standard Time, Aug. 24, 1976.
Percipient transcript: Minoqua, WI; 8:30 A CDT, Aug. 23, 1976:
"I have the feeling that the agent is somewhere near water. Iseem to
have the sensation of a very large expanse of water. There might be
boats. Several vertical lines, sort of like poles. They're narrow, not
heavy. Maybe lamp posts or flag poles. Some kind of circular shape.
It's round on its side, like a disc, it's like a round thing flat on the
ground, but it seems to have height as well. Maybe with poles. Could
possibly come to a point on top. Seeing vertical lines again. Seems to
be a strong impression, these vertical lines. Predominant colors seem
to be blue and green. Water again., Some very quick impression of a
fence, a low fence. The steps seem to go up to some kind of fence.
It's a dark fence and it's along like a walk sort of at the top of the
steps. The steps sort of lead up to like a path or walkway. Like a
boardwalk. And there's a fence along it. There's people walking
along it, and there's vertical lines along that walkway."
including the proper target, and to rate or rank-order them by
some prescribed criteria. Again, statistical assessment of the
significance of the rankings follows.
The bulk of the remote perception data reported in the litera-
ture has been evaluated by some form of these independent
judging processes, and displays sufficiently high yield to encour-
age further refinement of the protocol and analysis before
attempting categorical judgment on the validity and viability
of the phenomena. Beyond minor tightening of the target
selection, agent maneuver, and perception acquisition and re-
cording phases of the experiment, the major potential improve-
ments would still seem to pertain to the judging process, which
remains potentially vulnerable to subtle cues in the transcripts,
to vagaries in the judges' capability, to their subjective biases
toward the individual experiments and to the topic as a whole,
and to possible psychic input of their own [161], 162].
and
but
hem
.tue,
arch
Joks
and
igree
; like
In an effort to improve the judging process further, our labora-
tory has explored the applications of various information theo-
retic methods to the quantification of the data, and an analytic
technique has been devised which is based on a limited binary
alphabet of target/perception descriptors [179]. While less
sensitive to the Gestalt impressionism and symbolic represen-
tations which a human judge might capture, this method does
provide a rudimentary framework for evaluation of signal-to-
noise ratio in the information transfer, and an assessment
standardization less dependent on subjective interpretation.
In essence, the strategy is to replace impressionistic assessment
of the quality of a perception by the identification of specified
elements of information therein, after which a mechanical
scoring and ranking procedure takes over. In the hope of con-
veying a bit more substantive flavor of the data acquired in
remote perception experiments and the processing thereof,
permit us to describe this analysis in a little detail. .
The heart of the method is the establishment of a code, or
alphabet, of simple descriptive queries which may be addressed
to all targets and all perceptions, responses to which serve to
distinguish them and to permit quantification of the informa-
tion acquired in the perception process. In one version, these
"descriptors," thirty in number, are posed in binary form and
range over a spectrum from quite factual discriminations, e.g.,
whether the scene is indoors or outdoors, whether trees are
present, or whether there are automobiles, to much more im-
pressionistic aspects, such as whether the ambience is noisy or
quiet, confined or expansive, hectic or tranquil. The particular
ensemble of descriptors has evolved in part through personal
experience and intuition, and in part through trial-and-error
application to various pilot data. The goal has been a balanced
alphabet whose elements are a) relatively unambiguous; b) com-
monly perceived by a broad selection of percipients; c) individu-
ally instructive in defining the scene; d) complementary to one
another; and e) sufficient in number to permit reasonable syn-
thesis of the scene, but not so numerous to burden the data
collection or computation excessively.
Given this descriptor alphabet, each target in the pool is then
represented in terms of 30 binary bits, corresponding to the ap-
propriate YES/NO responses to the queries. This encoding is
normally performed by the agent at the time of target visita-
tion, although reference may be made to the target selector's
judgment or to photographs of the target for verification.
Each perception is similarly rendered into a corresponding
sequence of binary digits, but only after the percipient has been
allowed to form a free-response impression of the target. Vari-
ous scoring recipes are then invoked for quantitative comparison
of the perceptions with the targets, using for computation the
UNIX operating system of a PDP 11/45 or VAX 750.
The simplest recipe merely counts the number of correct
responses to the 30 descriptors, i.e., the positive correlations
between the target and descriptor matrices. This does not nor-
mally provide a particularly accurate index of the quality of the
individual perceptions, since the a priori probabilities of the
various descriptors are widely different. For example, a given
pool may have more outdoor than indoor targets, and hence
a correct identification of an indoor context should be given
higher credit than identification of an outdoor context. To
facilitate such weighting, a step is included in the computational
program to provide the a priori probabilities of all descriptors
in the prevailing target pool, on the basis of which more elabo-
rate scoring recipes may be invoked.
Since the various targets have substantially different charac-
teristics and hence different capacities for achieved scores, a
variety of normalization procedures also have been developed,
using as denominators the total number of descriptors, the per-
fect score, i.e., the score that would be achieved for a given
target if all descriptors were identified correctly, and various
"chance" scores for the target, defined by some random or
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TABLE III
PRECOGNITIVE REMOTE PERCEPTION 24 X 24 "CHICAGO" SERIES
PROPER TARGET RANKS
Scoring Methodª
Perception No.
A
B
C
D
E
Avg.
Avg./24
Human Judges
Mean Rank b
1
3/4
7
7
9
2
5.9
0.25
2.7/8 = 0.34
2
1/2
2
4
1
1
1.9
0.08
1.0/8 = 0.13
3
1
1
1
1
1
1.0
0.04
1.5/8 = 0.19
4
2/8
7/2
2/2
4/2
2/2
4.5
0.19
2.7/8 = 0.34
5
7/3
9
11
4
8
8.0
0.33
1.7/8 = 0.21
6
9/5
12/2
7/2
16/2
7/2
11.0
0.46
3.5/8 = 0.44
7
13/2
11
14
10
13
12.3
0.51
2.3/8 = 0.29
8
20/3
22
20
14
19
19.2
0.80
1.8/8 = 0.23
9
4/2
4
8
1
5
4.5
0.19
2.6/7 = 0.37
1
11
9/4
9
11
6
12
9.7
0.40
3.6/7 = 0.51
12
1/3
2
2
2
5
2.6
0.11
1.8/7 = 0.26
13
1/3
1
3
1
3
2.0
0.08
2.2/7 = 0.31
14
1
2
2
1
1
1.4
0.06
1.4/7 = 0.20
15
1/2
2
2
1
1
1.5
0.06
1.0/7 = 0.14
16
2
2
2
1
2
1.8
0.08
1.0/10 = 0.10
17
1/4
9
1
9
1
4.5
0.19
1.0/5 = 0.20
18
2/2
10
5
1
2
4.1
0.17
1.0/5 = 0.20
19
14/3
14
14
19
17
15.8
0.66
unjudged
20
7/6
11
11
8
10
9.9
0.41
5.0/6 = 0.83
21
1/2
2
3
4
1
2.3
0.10
2.0/6 = 0.33
22
5/6
7
12
2
7
7.1
0.30
3.0/6 = 0.50
23
16/4
23
11
15
9
15.1
0.63
3.0/6 = 0.50
24
3
3
4
3
4
3.4
0.14
2.0/6 = 0.33
Mean
6.73
7.75
7.13
5.96
5.79
6.67
0.28
0.31
ª Computed rank/number of ties for that rank.
bAssigned rank/number of possible ranks.
arbitrary process of descriptor response. A "selective" scoring/
normalization process has also been applied which effectively
allows the percipient to reject any descriptor on which he feels
unqualified to comment, and thence to be scored only on the
reduced descriptor set.
The statistical significances of these various normalized per-
ception scores are assessed by a collective ranking process
reminiscent of the traditional human judging techniques, but
having the advantages that the ranking proceeds on a much
more standardized and analytical basis, and that many more
alternative targets can be ranked by the machine than by a
human judge. Specifically, the program scores each transcript
not only against its proper target, but against every other tar-
get in the pool, and then ranks these targets in order of descend-
ing score and specifies the rank of the match with the proper
target. This process is repeated for every scoring method, and
the results displayed in corresponding matrix arrays.
Table III displays typical results of these analytical ranking
procedures as applied to a group of 24 perceptions of 24 targets
in the Chicago area. Tabulated are the ranks of the proper tar-
gets compared with all other targets for each of the perception
efforts, as computed by five of the scoring methods we have
found to be most instructive, namely, A) number of correct
descriptors/total number of descriptors; B) weighted full de-
scriptor score/perfect score; C) weighted full descriptor score/
number of descriptors; D) weighted selective descriptor score/
perfect score; and E) weighted selective descriptor score/chance
score. Also included in the table are the mean ranks assigned by
independent human judges subjectively comparing these per-
ceptions with a much smaller number of alternative targets.
Although the bases of comparison are quite different, it
appears that in the majority of these cases the analytical and
impressionistic evaluations concur at least roughly in their
estimate of the quality of the perceptions, particularly for those
which consistently obtain low rank assignments. If the analyt-
ical computation is carried through using as target pool only
those alternative targets available to the human judges, the
agreement in mean ranks is found to be somewhat closer, per-
haps fortuitously so, given the categorically different bases of
assessment implicit in the two methods.
To this analytically scored and ranked data it is possible to
apply a variety of statistical assessments of widely ranging
sophistication and complexity. Consistent with the rather
broad mesh of the descriptor code and the elementary scoring
recipes invoked in this version of the concept, we confine our-
selves to correspondingly simple statistical measures which
provide at least semi-quantitative indication of the yield beyond
chance. Specifically, we address only the distribution of proper
target ranks achieved in the series of perceptions, such as sum-
marized in columns 2-6 of Table III. Using the common z-
score method for a discrete distribution, the probability of
achieving the mean rank of any of these columns by chance
may be directly computed. Table IV displays the results of
such calculation for the same 24 X 24 "Chicago" series. Note
that, whereas all of the methods suggest significant departures
of the computed mean ranks from chance, there is relatively
little disparity among them, indicating that the specific method
of scoring and normalization is not a sensitive element in the
overall evaluation of the perception series.
The departure of the shape of the proper target rank distribu-
tion from chance is also displayed in Table IV in terms of the
number of perceptions achieving first-place ranks, the number
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13
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10.6
0.44
1.4/7 = 0.20
1
;
1
5
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TABLE IV .
PRECOGNITIVE REMOTE PERCEPTION. 24 X 24 "CHICAGO" SERIES
SCORE SUMMARY
Method ª
Mean
Rank
.No. 1st (2nd)
Ranks
No. Ranks
Below Mean
₦
Pz
×2(4)
Px
Chance
expectation
12.5
1.0 (1.0)
12
-4.08
2 × 10-5
18.5
<0.005
B
7.75
2.0 (6.0)
20
-3.36
4 × 10-4
11.8
<0.01
C
7.13
2.0 (4.5)
20
-3.80
7 × 10-5
19.6
<0.001
D
5.96
8.0 (2.0)
20
-4.63
2 × 10-6
24.0
<0.001
E
5.79
6.0 (3.5)
21
-4.75
1 × 10-6
27.6
<0.001
ªAs described in text:
A) Number of correct descriptors/total number of descriptors.
B) Weighted full descriptor score/perfect score.
C) Weighted full descriptor score/number of descriptors.
D) Weighted selective descriptor score/perfect score.
E) Weighted selective descriptor score/chance score.
TABLE V
PRECOGNITIVE REMOTE PERCEPTION 6 X 24 "OCEAN" SERIES
SCORE SUMMARY
Methodª
Mean
Rank
No. 1st (2nd)
Ranks
No. Ranks
Below Mean
Z
Pz
Chance
expectation
12.5
0.25 (0.25)
3
A
4.5
1.0
(1.1)
6
-2.83
0.002
B
4.2
2.0
(0.0)
6
-2.95
0.002
C
5.0
1.0
(1.0)
6
-2.65
0.004
D
5.2
1.0
(0.5)
6
-2.59
0.005
E
5.3
1.0
(1.0)
6
-2.54
0.006
a As described in text:
A) Number of correct descriptors/total number of descriptors.
B) Weighted full descriptor score/perfect score.
C) Weighted full descriptor score/number of descriptors.
D) Weighted selective descriptor score/perfect score.
E) Weighted selective descriptor score/chance score.
ranked better than the chance mean, and a simple X2 test with
its associated probability.
The method is not restricted to square arrays, i.e., to equal
numbers of targets and perceptions in one-to-one correspon-
dence. Table V displays the results of a recent "Ocean" series
in which six perceptions were ranked against 24 targets in the
pool from which the six actual targets were drawn. (The per-
cipient for this series was at the time sailing alone across the
North Atlantic Ocean.)
Because of its particularly severe protocol, we also include as
illustration the results of a "European" series judged by this
method. In this series, the agent was traveling in eastern
Europe, and on five successive days, at 3:00 P.M. local time,
utilized whatever location he happened to occupy as the target.
The perceptions of these targets were recorded by a single
percipient in northern Wisconsin at approximately 8:30 A.M.
local time of the preceding day, i.e., each perception was
roughly 24 h precognitive. (Fig. 22 depicts a target and percep-
tion from this series.) Table VI displays the analytically judged
results of this series, and compares them with the results of
previous human judging. Although the data base is small, the
consistency of yield is striking.
To obviate the possibility that this method of analysis may
somehow process even random inputs to apparently significant
scores, artificial target data matrices and artificial perception
data matrices have been constructed from the output of an
REG, and the computational schemes applied to various com-
binations of these with each other and with true data. The
pattern of results conforms to chance expectations. An
alternative form of control is provided by application of the
method to discernibly unsuccessful test series, which yields
appropriately insignificant results.
The project outlined in the last few paragraphs is described
in greater detail, with many other experimental examples,
both successful and unsuccessful, in reference [179]. We have
since developed the capability of employing ternary rather
than binary responses to the descriptors, in order to convey
more shaded information about the aspects queried. A given
feature may thereby be specified as a) present and dominant;
b) present but secondary; or c) absent. Or alternatively, the
feature may be described as a) definitely present; b) ambiguous
or unspecified; or c) definitely absent. While these approaches
clearly provide more specific target and perception data, the
scoring thereof becomes more complex, especially in the defini-
tion of certain of the normalization denominators.
We have also been exploring a modification of this analytical
judging procedure which would bypass the ranking steps alto-
gether and move directly to compute individual statistical scores
for each transcript. The key to this variation is the definition
and utilization of a generalized target pool composed of over
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YHE ILLE,
TABLE VI
PRECOGNITIVE REMOTE PERCEPTION 5 X 5 "EUROPEAN" SERIES
SCORE SUMMARY
Methodª
Mean
Rank
No. 1st (2nd)
Ranks
No. Ranks
Below Mean
Z
P-
Chance
expectation
3.0
1.0 (1.0)
3
A
1.2
4.3 (0.3)
5
-2.85
0.002
B
1.4
4.0 (0.0)
5
-2.53
0.006
C
1.4
3.0 (2.0)
5
-2.53
0.005
D
1.8
4.0 (0.0)
4
-1.90
0.029
E
1.6
3.0 (1.0)
5
-2.21
0.013
Seven human
judges (avg.)
1.9
2.1 (1.6)
4.6
8 As described in text:
A) Number of correct descriptors/total number of descriptors.
B) Weighted full descriptor score/perfect score.
C) Weighted full descriptor score/number of descriptors.
D) Weighted selective descriptor score/perfect score.
E) Weighted selective descriptor score/chance score.
200 targets, local, national, and international, assembled for a
broad range of earlier and ongoing experimental series, from
which correspondingly generalized a priori descriptor proba-
bilities may be calculated. Evaluation of the transcript scores
on the basis of these generalized probabilities, rather than
those calculated for the specific series target pools, has been
found to alter only slightly the relative ranks of the perceptions
determined by any of the five methods used above and provides
the desired common basis for evaluating the individual statis-
tical significance of those scores.
To pursue this, the program next assembles a set of empirical
chance distribution functions, one for each scoring method, by
concatenating all mismatched perception scores assigned by
that method, i.e., all off-diagonal elements of that perception-
target matrix. With reference to Gaussian fits to these empiri-
cal chance distributions, the proper perception-target scores
can then be assigned z-values and corresponding probabilities
against "chance." As one example of this approach, Fig. 23
shows the empirical distribution of scores compounded from
some 1400 mismatched targets and transcripts by method E,
on which are superimposed the scores achieved by the 24 proper
target perceptions of the "Chicago" series. The corresponding
z-values and probabilities against chance are listed in Table VII.
These individual significance values can subsequently be com-
pounded into an overall significance level for the entire series
by various standard procedures [180]. The latter result should
agree with that derived from the original ranking method, to
the order of approximation implicit in each form of this anal-
ysis. In this case, the series value is about 10-8, compared to
10-6 for the ranking method.
The specific results shown in Tables III-VII represent some of
the most successful data we have acquired; many less successful
examples could also be displayed. To summarize our total ex-
perience with over two hundred remote perception efforts, all
performed with volunteer percipients claiming no special abili-
ties, we might note that the data tend to fall into one of four
categories, in roughly comparable quantity:
1) the target is accurately represented in detail and composi-
tion;
2) particular features of the target are accurately perceived,
but the context is incorrect;
3) the ambience of the target is perceived, but the details
are inaccurate;
5
MISMATCHED
0 0
4
TARGETS
FITTED GAUSSIAN
0
MEAN = 1.0016
FREQUENCY
3
S.D. = 0.1163
00
2
1
O
0
0
PROPER
TARGETS
3
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
NORMALIZED SCORES
Fig. 23. Remote perception empirical chance distribution (method E).
4) the perception seems unrelated to the target in context
or detail.
Survey of the pertinent literature indicates a comparable pat-
tern of yield across the experience of others involved in similar
experiments.
To date there has been little progress in correlating the degree
of success of such efforts with the prevailing experimental
conditions or with the personality traits or attitudes of the
participants. A certain body of lore has compounded from the
testimony of the more successful percipients, such as the desir-
ability of a personal rapport between the agent and percipient,
the value of a lighthearted attitude, the importance of exclud-
ing any associative or constructive logic, etc., but much of this
is still too vague and inconsistent to provide any basis for ex-
perimental refinement or theoretical modeling. At present,
the only fair statement would be that empirical evidence for
this class of phenomena continues to accumulate, but with
frustrating irregularity and little basic comprehension. Not-
withstanding, the present and potential applications of the
process in a variety of arenas, combined with the relatively
simple and inexpensive nature of the experiment, keep this
type of study active.
THEORETICAL CONCEPTS
No remotely satisfactory physical theory of psychic phenom-
ena yet exists. Indeed, next to the evasiveness of the effects
under controlled experimentation, the second greatest frustra-
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ethod E).
context
able pat-
n similar
he degree
rimental
es of the
from the
the desir-
ercipient,
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jis for ex-
[ present,
dence for
but with
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relatively
keep this
c phenom-
he effects
Ist frustra-
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157
TABLE VII
PRECOGNITIVE REMOTE PERCEPTION INDIVIDUAL STATISTICAL SCORES
(METHOD E) 24 X 24 "CHICAGO" SERIES
Perception No.
z-score
Pz
1
1.210
0.113
2
0.089
0.465
3
2.737
0.003
4
1.700
0.045
5
-0.553
0.709
6
1.533
0.063
7
-0.315
0.623
8
-0.315
0.623
9
0.451
0.326
10
-0.197
0.578
11
0.191
0.424
12
2.037
0.021
13
2.948
0.002
14
2.244
0.012
15
2.661
0.004
16
2.478
0.007
17
2.180
0.017
18
1.904
0.028
19
0.083
0.467
20
-0.152
0.560
21
2.679
0.004
22
0.701
0.241
23
1.057
0.145
24
0.113
0.455
tion in the study of psychic processes has been the absence of
viable theoretical models with which to begin the traditional
dialogue between theory and experiment on which all scientific
progress eventually depends. This may, of course, be indicative
of an illegitimacy of the phenomena themselves, or at least of
an evanescence that fundamentally precludes any analytical
representation. On the other hand, it may be an indication
that modern physical theory, elaborate and sophisticated as it
is, has not yet evolved to a stage where it can properly acknowl-
edge and deal with the role of consciousness in the physical
world [181], and that this should be one of its new frontiers.
Before pouncing toward either extreme, it may be worthwhile
to play through some of the more canonical attempts that have
been made to deal with this domain, both from a formalistic
and philosophical point of view.
Efforts toward theoretical explication of psychic phenomena
over the past century have proceeded from various levels of
presumption as to the fundamentality of the effects observed.
Some have insisted that the effects are totally illusory, i.e., arti-
facts of poor experimentation or data processing, or that they
are the chance results of random processes. Others have assigned
the effects to known physical and physiological mechanisms
associated with, but not deliberately precipitated by the partic-
ipants, e.g., electromagnetic radiation from brain circuitry or
intercardial potentials, or heat transfer, vibration, or aerochem-
ical changes in the experimental environment caused by human
presence or exertion. More ambitious efforts have contended
that no such conservative models can suffice, and that it will
be necessary to identify new forms of energy or information
transfer to retain the established physical formalisms, or pos-
sibly even necessary to expand the physical laws themselves,
as was required in the generalization from classical mechanics
to quantum mechanics or to special and general relativity, with
the present forms becoming subsumed under more compre-
hensive statements. Still others have concluded that the scien-
tific paradigm in general is inadequate and that basic revision
in the representation of the process of conscious observation
of physical events will be required.
Beyond the uncertainty as to the fundamentality of the
model required, these modeling efforts have labored under the
confusion of whether the purported phenomena are most basi-
cally psychological, physiological, physical, or some inextricable
combination thereof, and hence which class of concepts should
dominate the model and which should be secondary. Virtually
all permutations have been explored to some degree, under
labels of "psycho-physiological," "biophysical," "psycho-
physical," etc., but none of these can claim more than sugges-
tive analogies or philosophical stimulation. This author is
unqualified to assess any models based in the psychological
or physiological domains, other than to note that those most
frequently discussed tend to acknowledge the role of random
processes, information ordering, and statistical, rather than
directly causal mechanisms [182]-[187], all of which have
their counterparts in several of the more physically oriented
modes which have been proposed. Confining ourselves to such
physical theories, the history of credible analytic effort is con-
veniently short and, in my view, more instructive in its philo-
sophical than in its functional characteristics.
Electromagnetic and Geophysical Models
For perhaps naive reasons, the earliest physical models tended
to presume wavelike propagation of psychic effects, usually in
the electromagnetic modes [188]. Doubtless the concurrent
emergence of radio technology with its revolutionary wireless
capabilities influenced the concepts and nomenclature of these
versions, and frequent reference to psychic "transmitters,"
"receivers," "antennas," "tuning," and "static" are found in
them. Upton Sinclair's book, Mental Radio, mentioned earlier,
is one example of such an analogy [152].
More modern models of this genre, appearing predominantly
in the Russian literature [43], [50], [100], [189], [190], have
focused on very low frequency bands, of the order of 10 Hz,
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characteristic of various physiological frequencies, especially
the brain wave spectra. Some variations of these have invoked
modulation of the earth's magnetic field or of the electrostatic
fields of the atmosphere. Wave models involving other than
electromagnetic environmental media have also been proposed,
such as infrasonic atmospheric waves, geoseismic waves, and
barometric fluctuations, possibly stimulated by contemporary
attention to the inexplicable homing capabilities of birds, fish,
and animals, and the hive or swarm behavior of certain insects
[101], [102], [132].
As suggested by the pre-occupation with screen-rooms in the
early days of the electromagnetic concept, and by more recent
long-distance remote perception experiments, some of the ob-
vious validation/disqualification tests examining attenuation,
diffraction, interference, and polarization effects have indeed
been attempted, but the very large dimensions involved for these
wavelengths leave the studies less than conclusive. Some con-
temporary workers retain support for this category of model,
claiming that the necessary electromagnetic signal levels re-
quired for influence on the brain circuitry are so small that no
coarse-grained tests can properly discriminate against them.
More problematic, in my own view, are the absence of any
demonstrated velocity of propagation of psychic effects and
the large body of precognition evidence which, if accepted,
cannot be accommodated by any reasonable advanced wave
characteristics.
However, setting aside for the moment the quantitative func-
tional difficulties with the electromagnetic approach to psychic
phenomena, certain broader philosophical analogies in the
conceptual and experimental aspects of the two topics may be
worth noting. In electromagnetism, beyond the bald empiricism
of the definition of the fields themselves as representations of
"action-at-a-distance," there are many features which to a
naive or primitive observer would, and indeed historically did,
appear as "paranormal," or at least anomalous: the noncolinear
aspects of Ampere's and Biot-Savart's laws and of the Faraday
effect; induction effects and switching transients; the Maxwell
displacement current; the propagation of waves in a vacuum,
with a specified finite velocity-each of these in some sense
digressed from contemporary "normal" experience, was con-
ceptually difficult in its time, and required certain leaps of
empiricism to get on with the formalism.
To the extent that we just now hold a similarly naive and
primitive view of psychic phenomena, it may be necessary to
tolerate similarly empirical representations until a more com-
prehensive model can knit itself into a more fundamental
representation. For this purpose, there may be some merit in
looking to just such electromagnetic effects for analogies. As
one example, the pervasive "decline effect" in psychic experi-
mentation, wherein the performance on psychic tasks is widely
reported to be highest immediately after initiation, to decrease
over protracted testing periods, and then to improve again just
before termination, is somewhat reminiscent of the induced
signatures of certain electromagnetic processes. The decline
effect has been commonly ascribed to a psychological boredom
or reduction in the emotional intensity of the operator per-
forming the task; just possibly it may be a more fundamental
characteristic of the phenomenological domain.
In a similar vein, many psychic effects are reported to be in-
trinsically transient, e.g., the "fleeting impression"; the "sudden
vision"; the "unexpected effect." One of the favored techniques
of some remote perception percipients is to "sweep through"
their image of the target repeatedly until it is clarified. Many
PK effects are reported to be achieved just at the first effort
or immediately after the effort is terminated. Such "beginner's
luck" evidence might be construed to indicate that psychic
processes are invalidated by prolonged and careful examina-
tion; alternatively, it may be a hint that they are inherently
"inductive," in the electromagnetic sense, i.e, that they are in-
trinsically unsteady phenomena wherein the time derivatives
influence the magnitudes of the effects.
Yet another characteristic that psychic effects share with
certain electromagnetic processes is their tendency to be in-
direct, tangential, or peripheral: direct effort on one PK task
fails, but a secondary effect is noted on another component
or device; central elements of a remote perception target are
ignored by the percipient, but minor or peripheral aspects are
identified with precision; the pattern of physical disturbance in
a poltergeist event is reported to be vortical rather than radial,
all of which call to mind cross-product and vector curl effects
in the electromagnetic domain.
The point in suggesting such analogies is not to endorse direct
physical correspondence between electromagnetic and psychic
processes, but rather to speculate whether the human mind
may tend to perceive and assess phenomena in the two domains
in certain similar fundamental ways.
Entropy and the Random Process
A second, more recently opened class of psychic model
addresses the interaction of consciousness with natural random
processes [95], [187], [191]. A common aspect of the estab-
lished physical formalisms of kinetic theory, thermodynamics,
statistical mechanics, and information theory is the role of
randomicity as the reference plane for information and energy
exchange. By whatever representation, the second law of ther-
modynamics, expressing the tendency of isolated physical
systems to drive irreversibly toward configurations of mini-
mum order and information content, stands starkly asymmetric
in the time coordinate, thereby raising profound philosophical
issues in virtually every domain from biophysics to cosmology.
Some of the most controlled and replicable experiments in PK,
such as the REG studies outlined earlier, could be construed to
challenge the second law, or at least to suggest modifications of
the concept of an isolated physical system. Namely, under
the circumstances of those experiments, human consciousness
could be postulated to be inserting order, albeit to a small
degree, into a random physical process.
This possibility can be extended conceptually to the anoma-
lous acquisition of information in remote perception experi-
ments, to psychic healing, and to animal and plant PK, but to
my knowledge, no attempts at formulation have yet specified
any details of the ordering capability, e.g., its physical or phys-
iological source, its propagation modes, or its manner of inter-
action. Pending these, one can again only proceed with high
empiricism to attempt to represent the observed correlations
in a useful fashion, a strategy which has sustained many other
observational fields in their primitive phases. Notwithstanding,
this class of psychic model poses a profound question: The
long-accepted essence of consciousness is its ability to extract
information from its environment; may the reverse also be
possible? May consciousness have the ability to insert infor-
mation into its environment?
One extreme variation of this model escalates the question
even one step further, to ask whether it is possibly an indige-
nous property of extremely elaborate and complex systems
that they may embody inherent functional consciousness of
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159
their own-that somehow out of their very complexity, the
interlockings of their systems, they derive not only abilities
to learn, to reproduce themselves, to adapt to their environ-
ment, but also to exert an entropy reversing form of "con-
sciousness" on themselves [192], [193].
Hyperspace Representations
A few attempts have been made to represent paranormal
effects by re-casting the basic laws of physics in more than the
four coordinates of normal human experience and applying the
consequent new terms to the representation of paranormal
effects [104], [105], [194]. For example, one such approach
adds an imaginary component to each of the spatial and tempo-
ral coordinates, i.e., invokes complex space and time, somewhat
in the spirit of ac circuit theory or exponential wave mechanics.
[195]. The imaginary components and their "cross-talk" with
the traditional real ones thereby permit representation of anom-
alous effects within the framework of established physical laws.
To date, no convincing fundamental definition of these new
dimensions has been offered, thereby reducing such models to
an heuristic or empirical level. In this sense, the approach bears
some similarity to the "hidden variable" aspect of quantum
mechanics, mentioned below.
One may speculate that if such models are to address the in-
teraction of consciouness with physical process, the requisite
new coordinates or components must relate to, or in some way
define or localize, the processes of consciousness. In other
words, to the normal "hard" coordinates, whereby events are
conventionally specified in the physical world, it may be neces-
sary to add certain "soft" coordinates to specify the conscious
processes by which those events are perceived and possibly in-
fluenced. Clearly, the coordinate frame in which one chooses to
observe and represent any physical process is intimately linked
to the perception of that process. Two common examples
would be the perceptions of kinematic and dynamic effects in
a rotating frame of reference, such as a merry-go-round or an
orbiting spacecraft, or the even more bizarre appearances of
physical processes in rapidly accelerating frames, à la general
relativity.
To compound this interdependence of perception and refer-
ence frame by including "consciousness coordinates" in the
specification of the latter is an awesome proposition, but an
intriguing one. And the consequences need not be restricted
to the mechanical behavior of physical systems, but may also
influence their perceived substance. The noted British astron-
omer Sir Arthur Eddington, some fifty years ago, presaged this
concept most boldly and heretically [196], [197], [203] :
The whole of those laws of nature. . . have their origin, not in
any special mechanisms of nature, but in the workings of the
mind ....
All through the physical world runs that unknown content
which must surely be the stuff of our consciousness. . . .
Where science has progressed the farthest, the mind has regained
from nature that which the mind has put into nature. . . .
We may look forward with undiminished enthusiasm to learning
in the coming years what lies in the atomic nucleus-even though
we suspect that it is hidden there by ourselves .. . .
The stuff of the world in mind-stuff.
Transform Models
Another rather extreme approach proposed recently has come
to be referred to as the "holographic" or "transform" model
[198]-[200]. Essentially what is suggested here, as I under-
stand it, is that the information of the universe is arrayed, not
in terms of position and time as we have come to perceive it,
but rather as frequency and amplitude information, and that
the human consciousness essentially performs "Fourier trans-
forms" on this to order that information into the more familiar
form. In the sense that the space and time coordinates are
·thereby downgraded from the fundamental coordinates of
experience to useful ordering parameters, one could interpret
such models to imply that consciousness may, by this mecha-
nism, access any portion of space and time to acquire informa-
tion, and then interpret it in some characteristic form.
The physicist David Bohm, in conjunction with the psychol-
ogist Karl Pribram, has elaborated such concepts to a consider-
able degree of generality, proposing a so-called "implicate
order" or "enfolded order" of fundamental reality from which
the more familiar "explicate order," i.e., the commonly mani-
fest perceptions are assembled in accordance with the prevail-
ing circumstances of their observation [201], [202].
Quantum Mechanical Models
Probably the most exercised category of contemporary model
attempts to apply the concepts and formalisms of quantum me-
chanics to represent some of the paranormal effects presented
in the psychic domain. Of all the forms of physical analysis,
quantum mechanics invokes the largest array of empirical pos-
tulates that are at variance with conventional rationality, and
yields in their implementation a corresponding array of results
which contradict common impressions of reality. The quan-
tization process itself, which limits measurable properties to
discrete values; the representation of particulate systems by
wave functions; the role of observation in collapsing the wave
functions to a single state vector; the uncertainty principle;
the exclusion principle; the indistinguishability principle; and
most drastic of all, the commitment to totally probabilistic
mechanical behaviors-all, in some sense concede a degree of
paradox in human perception of physical processes. The famil-
iar conundrums of "Schrodinger's Cat," "Wigner's Friend," or
the "Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox," all suggest that the
laws of quantum mechanics are not so much statements of
fundamental physical reality, as of our ability to acquire in-
formation about that reality. Quantum mechanics, in other
words, does not so much describe the state of a physical sys-
tem as it describes our knowledge of the state of that system.
It is somewhat in this spirit that a number of authors have
aspired to model psychic process in quantum mechanical terms.
Some have attempted to invoke the so-called "hidden" or un-
used variables of the formalism to involve conscious process
more explicitly in the behavior of physical systems [107],
[204]-[208]. Others have endeavored to draw analogies
between the synaptic processes in the brain and quantum
mechanical "tunneling" [209].
Given the primitive state of the phenomenological data base,
much of this effort may be prematurely elaborate and complex.
Our own approach to quantum mechanical modeling has been
far more superficial and generic, attempting only to explore
possible analogies between the paradoxical consequences of the
formalism, and the paranormal evidence of certain psychic ex-
periments. Again with the indulgence of the reader, we might
sketch a bit of this argument, for the purpose of illustrating
this class of approach with the example closest to hand.
One conventional interpretation of the application of quan-
tum mechanical formalism to the observable behavior of phys-
ical systems is to associate appropriate mathematical operators
with a corresponding measurement process. When applied to
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the prevailing wave function of the system, these operators call
out the observable values of the property in question as eigen-
values of an equation of the form
MVi=miVi
where M is the measurement operator, m; are the observable
values of the measured property, and w; the corresponding
eigenstates of the wave function. Our approach is to general-
ize this representation to include conscious systems as well as
conventional physical ones, and to allow the measurement
operator concept to include specification of psychological as
well as physical properties.
Thus, we denote a particular individual consciousness by a
"state function" Vi, and represent a situation to which it is
exposed by an operator S. Application of the situation opera-
tor to the consciousness wave function then yields the possible
psychological responses, si, as eigenvalues:
We then invoke certain aspects of quantum mechanical in-
teraction theory to develop the capacity for "paranormal" be-
havior of both physical and conscious systems. For example, in
the traditional theory of the covalent chemical bond between
two hydrogen atoms, one constructs from the separate atomic
functions, vª and vº, using arguments of symmetry and in-
distinguishability, a composite molecular wave function yab,
which yields expectation values for the molecular energy levels
substantially different from simple linear superposition of the
atomic energy eigenvalues, i.e.,
eqb = ef + et + Aeab
where ef and ep are the energy eigenvalues of the atomic
systems, and Aego embodies an "exchange energy" term
which is classically inexplicable, but devolves formally from
the postulate that the electrons are indistinguishable in the
bonded configuration. Stated more bluntly, surrendering in-
formation about the identity of the atomic electrons in the
molecular configuration leads directly to a significant and ob-
servable component of the binding energy, thus posing an
equivalence between information and energy far more stark
than that implicit in the second law of thermodynamics.
Using similar formalism, we may represent the state function
of two interacting individuals, or of an interacting individual
and physical system, by a composite state function yab whose
behavior characteristics also differ significantly from those of
the separated systems, i.e.,
sqb =sq+si +Asqb +Asia
where s? denotes the "normal" response of the first individual
to the prevailing situation, and sp that of the second individual
or of the physical system, and Asad and Aspª denote modifica-
tions of those behaviors arising because the two systems are
strongly interacting during the observed situation.
As a specific example, to apply this approach to remote per-
ception experiments we could denote the percipient by UP, the
agent by vª, and the experimental protocol by the mathemati-
cal operator P. In the absence of interaction between the per-
cipient and agent, each would have certain "normal" reactions
to the experimental situation, p?, pa, derived from the eigen-
value relations:
PVP=pPU?
PVq =pq Vq
i.e., the percipient would perceive nothing about the target
that was not accessible to his normal perceptual modes, and the
agent would react to the target under no influence from the
percipient.
However, if the percipient and agent are strongly enough
interacting to require a new "molecular" wave function, y Pa,
"paranormal" terms will appear in their response patterns:
płª = pl + p? + Appª + Ap P
where in Apfª we may accommodate the anomalous acquisi-
tion of information about the target, and in ApAP the com-
monly reported experience of the agent of having his attention
attracted to specific details he would "normally" have ignored.
Application of this formalism to a PK experiment proceeds
in a similar fashion. Here we might represent the experimental
operator (person) by v°, and the experimental device by d.
Again the experimental protocol is represented by a mathe-
matical operator, K. In the absence of major interaction, the
device behaves "normally":
Kvđ=kqvq
and the operator has the "normal" psychological experiences:
KVi=kivi.
But if the operator and the device are in some state of reso-
nance, ydo, each behaves somewhat differently, i.e.,
kdo = kq +ki +Akdo + Akid.
The anomalous modification in the behavior of the system
Akdo is termed PK; Akod accomodates any paranormal psy-
chological reactions of the operator.
Development of further illustrations of this general method.
here would be inappropriate and would require more detailed
specification of the nature of the consciousness wave functions,
their functional form, their proper "soft" coordinates, and the
interpretation of their quantum numbers. Some of this has
been attempted, along with various other applications to the
psychic domain, and is available in a reference [210]. The
point of exposition here is largely a philosophical one: namely,
the "paranormal" effects emerge as a consequence of the com-
parison of the behavior of an interacting system with that of
its separated components.
Quantum mechanics may have quite another analytical
precedent to contribute to the representation of psychic
phenomenology. Clearly, much of the psychic research data
will continue to be acquired and processed in statistical form,
using established statistical methods. Yet, all statistical models
ultimately trace back to certain fundamental probability rules
for the elemental systems involved. For the statistical models
to be viable, these probability rules must a) exist; b) be known;
and c) be analytically tractable. At present, virtually all pro-
cessing of psychic research data presumes the applicability of
classical statistics, yet the basic probability rules for the ele-
mental processes are, in point of fact, unknown [211], [212].
It may fortuitously be the case that much of psychic process
can be adequately treated as marginal deviation from classical
chance behavior. In some cases, however, it may be necessary
to invoke categorically different statistics, tracing back to funda-
mentally different probability rules, to deal with the effects.
The quantum mechanical precedents of relevance, of course, are
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the two systems of quantum statistics, i.e., the Fermi-Dirac
and Bose-Einstein systems, which are based upon the phase-
space population rules for half-integer and integer spin particles
as imposed by the Pauli principle, i.e., the wave function sym-
metry requirements. For most common physical systems, these
quantum statistics conveniently degenerate into the classical
form, but for certain special situations, e.g., the specific heats
of metals and certain radiation properties, their full applica-
tion is essential.
By analogy, one could postulate that physical reality, as per-
ceived and influenced by human consciousness, actually plays
by more elaborate probability rules than commonly attributed
to it, and hence strictly requires a more complex statistical
mechanics. Thus, in this view, the processes commonly regarded
as "normal" would be those for which the "classical" approxi-
mation to this more complex system is adequate; small-scale
psychic effects would then comprise those displays of minor
deviations of the complex statistics from the "classical" limit;
the more drastic phenomena-poltergeists, levitations, metal
bending, etc .- would presumably become explicable only in
terms of the full statistical formulation.
Holistic Models
Yet more extreme in conceptual difficulty is a body of con-
tention that psychic processes are inseparably holistic, and that
no model rooted in any sector of established science can ad-
equately represent them [213]. In particular, the suggestion
is offered that psychic processes are manifestations of the inter-
diffusion of the analytical, scientific world with the creative
aesthetic world, and thus to represent them effectively it will
be necessary to combine the philosophical perspectives and
techniques of both domains. To resort to metaphor for illus-
tration once again, one could ponder such analogies from the
common physical world as the interface regions between the
sea and land, where the diffuse patterns of the ocean wave
structure meet the solid promontories and sloping beaches of
the coast to produce the crashing breakers and hissing foam of
seashore phenomena, or the overrunning of a warm, moist
atmosphere by a cold-front of drier, cooler air to initiate the
striking electrical and acoustical phenomena of the summer
thunderstorm.
By whatever analogy it may be illustrated, theoretical repre-
sentation of the interpenetration of causal physical mechanics
with creative conscious process must be a formidable under-
taking, yet not totally without precedent or allied effort. For
examples, interest is just now growing in the humanistic psy-
chology community in the analytical study of human creativity
[214]-[216], and, on the other side of the interface, a few
physicists are beginning to muse openly about the role of
aesthetics in subnuclear and cosmological physical behavior
[217]-[220]. In yet a different arena, certain futurists are
now examining the interplay of aesthetic and functional hu-
man needs and values in the evolution of social and political
structure [221]. To be sure, none of these has produced much
in the way of analytical formalism, but the peculiarity, magni-
tude, and significance of the interpenetration effects are being
acknowledged.
Any summary assessment of the status of physical models of
psychic phenomena should properly begin with reiteration of
the opening statement: none of the approaches outlined above
has yielded anything approaching a functional theoretical basis.
Yet, the ensemble of empirical experimental experience seems
to suggest that certain of the conceptual and perceptual char-
acteristics underlying those formalisms may be relevant to
ultimate representation of such processes. Specifically, they
suggest that the following rather general hypotheses may be
worthy of more detailed examination:
1) The phenomena may be inherently statistical, rather than
directly causal, and we may be observing them "on the margin."
That is, the observed phenomena may represent marginal
changes from normal behavior on a very grand scale and with
fluctuation times which tax human observational capability. It
also may be necessary to deal with more complex statistical
mechanics, appropriate to more involved basic probability
rules, to represent the most drastic effects.
2) Just as human consciousness has the ability to extract in-
formation from an external system, e.g., by observing it, that
consciousness may also have the ability to project information
into it, e.g., by ordering random processes.
3) Quantum mechanics may be more than a system of physi-
cal mechanics; it may be a more fundamental representation of
human consciousness and perception processes, and the empiri-
cal pillars of this formalism, such as the uncertainty principle,
the exclusion principle, the indistinguishability principle, and
the wave/particle dualities may be as much laws of conscious-
ness as laws of physics.
4) Psychic processes may be inherently holistic, and thus
the ultimate model may need to integrate both the scientific
and the aesthetic aspects in order to identify the sources of
the phenomena. That is, psychic processes may be manifesta-
tions of the intersection of the analytical, scientific world
with the creative, aesthetic world, and thus, to represent them
effectively, it may be necessary to integrate both perspectives
without sacrificing the integrity of either.
Clearly, any of these intuitions will have to be developed in
far more philosophical and analytical detail before a trenchant
theoretical model can emerge, but at this primitive stage it is
probably stimulating to consider a few such radical possibilities,
along with more prosaic explications. Changes of this magni-
tude in representation of human perceptual reality inevitably,
and properly, would be attended by much philosophical re-
calcitrance and agony, but the broader personal and collective
insights that could derive from legitimate efforts to bridge the
analytical/aesthetic interface could be of at least corresponding
benefit.
THE NEGATIVE SIDE
Contemporary criticism of psychic research and rejection of
the phenomena it purports to demonstrate tend to focus on a
number of specific objections, each of which has some degree
of validity and merits some thought in any balanced assess-
ment of the topic [118], [178], [222]-[224]. The most
commonly cited concerns include:
1) demonstrable fraud;
2) naivete of technique, including inadequate controls,
faulty equipment, sensory cuing of participants, other
experimenter biases, selective treatment of data, im-
proper statistical methods, and general experimental
and theoretical incompetence;
3) little improvement in comprehension over many years
of study;
4) absence of adequate theoretical models;
5) suppression of negative results;
6) poor experimental replicability;
7) elusiveness of effects under close scrutiny;
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8) sensitivity of results to participants, attitudes, and labora-
tory ambience;
9) tendency for many results to be only marginally signif-
icant compared to chance expectation;
10) inconsistency with prevailing "scientific world view;"
11) contradictory to personal psychology, philosophy,
theology, or "common sense."
Obviously this list runs a gamut from rather technical and pro-
cedural objections, through phenomenological inconsistencies,
to rather categorical and subjective rejections, and only a few
of these issues can be constructively addressed here.
Unfortunately, but undeniably, one or the other of the first
two judgments may legitimately be applied to a large body of
the propounded results. By its nature, the field is immensely
vulnerable to fraudulent exploitation and naive gullibility, and
such have indeed occurred to a distressing degree. It is also
true that the topic has attracted a disproportionate share of less
than fully competent researchers, and that it presents extra-
ordinary pitfalls for even the most disciplined scholars. Yet
despite the substantial validity of these claims, and the suspicion
they inevitably cast on all other results, it does not seem that
they should predicate categorical rejection of the entire field.
Rather, the vulnerable cases should be patiently ferreted out
using obvious scholarly criteria, and only those efforts surviving
such scrutiny used for scientific insight and judgment.
The lack of definitive progress toward comprehension of the
phenomena and the absence of viable theoretical models have
already been acknowledged in the foregoing text, and although
these assessments should perhaps be qualified by the relatively
minute integrated investment of resources made in this field in
comparison to many of the more favored areas of science, they
nonetheless constitute legitimate concerns about the ultimate
tractability of the field. It should perhaps also be noted that,
despite the prolonged effort, it is only very recently that more
sensitive and powerful experimental equipment and data pro-
cessing techniques have been brought to bear, and equally re-
cently that more sophisticated physical formalisms have been
invoked, and that these have had a much briefer opportunity
to render the phenomena into comprehensible terms.
The subsequent five objections, 5)-9), are more specific and
substantive, and merit examination from two orthogonal points
of view. Namely, to what extent do such characteristics indeed
invalidate the results, and conversely, to what extent might they
illuminate the basic nature of the phenomena? With respect to
suppression of unfavorable results, there has undoubtedly been
some tendency in this field, as in most others, to advance posi-
tive or definitive findings more enthusiastically than negative
or equivocal ones. Indeed, this paper has been guilty of the
same bias. In an effort to provide concise representation of
the style and substance of psychic research and of the nature
of the effects it can produce, we have tended to invoke as illus-
trations some of the more successful and familiar pieces of
work without balancing the presentation with comparable ex -.
amples of the negative or equivocal results that are regularly
acquired in these efforts.
To the credit of the psychic research community, it has offi-
cially encouraged thorough and objective reporting of negative
data, and much of these indeed appear regularly in its established
journals [225]-[228], with a number of consequent benefits.
First, beyond adding credibility to the body of positive results,
such data compound to provide some quantitative index of the
ratio of positive to negative yields in a given class of experiment,
thereby contributing to a broader sense of the grand statistics
of the phenomena. In addition, documentation of the specific
conditions prevailing in unsuccessful experiments may be help-
ful in excluding irrelevant parameters from further considera-
tion, and in identifying and reducing counterproductive influ-
ences. Perhaps most pointedly, however, the body of negative
and equivocal data emphasize that psychic phenomena, if real,
are highly irregular and sensitive to intangible influences well
beyond current scientific control, and, if their study is to be
pursued, this caveat must be accepted ab initio, at least for the
present.
A similar interpretation also applies to the irreplicability
complaint, and to the three following it. Without question,
the dominant experimental frustration in this field is the in-
ability to replicate on demand previously observed paranormal
effects, not only at other laboratories, but even in the original
facility, using the original participants, under apparently identi-
cal experimental circumstances [172], [173], [229]-[231].
This ubiquitous characteristic has precipitated major philosoph-
ical excursions which are well beyond our capacity to review
here. Only briefly, four possible categorical interpretations
have been advocated:
a) The phenomena are illusory.
b) The phenomena are rare and bizarre chance occurrences,
beyond any hope of regularization.
c) The phenomena are precipitated, at least in part, by psy-
chological and/or physiological factors which are presently
beyond experimental control, but which if fully compre-
hended would conform to established scientific paradigm.
d) The phenomena are inherently statistical, and possibly
quantum mechanical, on a macroscopic scale, thus mani-
festing themselves with finite but fractional probability
on any given occasion.
The latter pair of options are not necessarily mutually exclu-
sive, particularly if one takes a rather generous doubly statistical
point of view, namely that the human population embodies a
range of capability for engendering such effects and that beyond
that, any individual may display a variable range of personal ca-
pacity, depending on a variety of environmental, physiological,
and psychological factors prevailing at the time.
The evasiveness of the phenomena under carefully controlled
and observed study may be the most damning criticism of all,
or it may also constitute a valid and illuminating phenomeno-
logical characteristic. The tendency of a given preliminary or
anecdotal effect to disappear or diminish when the experiment
is tightened, or when it is displayed to a skeptical jury of ob-
servers, obviously casts major doubt on the scientific integrity
of the process. Yet it also brings to mind at least two other pro-
cesses which, while superficially dissimilar, may not be totally
irrelevant, namely artistic creativity, and quantum mechanical
measurement as limited by the uncertainty principle. In the
former, there should be little quarrel that the creative processes
of artistic, musical, or literary composition, or of lofty philo-
sophical thought in general, are not usually facilitated by rigid
constraints or by the presence of a body of unsympathetic
observers. The importance of favorable ambience and mood
for such efforts is intuitively and demonstrably clear, and little
creative achievement is likely to occur in overly sterile or hostile
environments, a truth Richard Wagner vividly conveyed to his
own critics by his portrayal of the fate of young Walther at-
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163
tempting his avant-garde "Trial Song" before the assembled
Meistersingers. Virtually every creative artist preserves some
form of retreat or sanctuary, and even the most rigorous of
scientists will concede the role of unstructured mental imagery
in enhancing their technical insights.
The analogy of the quantum mechanical measurement process
is somewhat more strained, in that it requires generalization of
the concept to the macroscopic level of information or energy
exchange between two persons or between a person and a
physical system. The point will not be developed here, other
than to note that if there is any validity to the application of
quantum mechanical logic to this class and scale of intellectual/
intuitive process, as discussed earlier and in the references,
some form of "uncertainty principle" could predicate a limit
to the precision with which psychic effects could be observed.
More specifically, if the "hard" and "soft" coordinates of repre-
sentation are canonically conjugate, some form of AqAp ~ h
rule may apply, so that attempts at excessive precision in speci-
fication of a psychic effect could dissipate its cause, and vice-
versa [210].
The final two reservations regarding inconsistency of the phe-
nomena with established scientific and personal views, while
constituting powerful professional and personal discriminators
and properly predicating great caution and discipline in ventur-
ing into any anomalous field, also cannot be allowed total veto
authority if new domains of conceptual experience are ever to
be challenged. In responding to a critic of an earlier paper who
stood on these points I wrote, perhaps too floridly,
Authoritarianism such as this encourages established knowledge
to sit smugly on its duff and categorically reject all new evidence
that does not support or fill in its contemporary "world-view
compatability criterion"-whatever that is. Worst of all, it stifles
the most precious attribute of human consciousness, the yearning
for ever new, ever higher wisdom that has driven the mind and
spirit of man to evolve upward, rather than merely to replicate
[232].
More persuasive to this issue, however, would be a simple histor-
ical count of the number of leaps of scientific insight, from
Aristotle to this day, which would have been, and in most
cases were, for a time, rejected on the basis of these criteria.
Curiously, it has often been those giants of science who with
soaring insight and courage of conviction violated such tenets
to lead their fields to new plateaus of understanding, who also,
in a later day, led the recalcitrance of the establishment against
comparably sacrilegious visions of their successors, while still
endorsing in general terms the importance of visionary thought.
Galileo, early champion of scientific methodology and revolu-
tionary concepts in terrestrial and celestial mechanics against
vicious dogmatic opposition, rejected Kepler's elliptical orbits
as "occult fantasy"; Thomas Young, whose brilliant interference
experiments finally established the wave character of light,
contended with Fresnel's theoretical formulations of the same
processes; Ernst Mach disputed relativity and atomic theory;
Rutherford, who showed the world the nuclear atom, dismissed
any practical significance for nuclear energy; Lavoisier and
Ostwald disputed atomic theories of chemistry; D'Alembert
opposed probability theory; Edison discounted alternating
current; Lindberg despaired of Goddard's rocketry; and Albert
Einstein retained an enduring uneasiness about quantum theory
despite his many contributions to its evolution [233]-[235].
Incidentally, the same Albert Einstein who would invoke the
establishment criteria against Upton Sinclair's clairvoyance
data:
... the results of the telepathic experiments carefully and
plainly set forth in this book stand surely far beyond those
.
which a nature investigator holds to be thinkable [152].
could in quite another tone testify eloquently to the impor-
tance of the aesthetic dimension in creative science:
The most beautiful and most profound emotion we can ex-
perience is the sensation of the mystical. It is the sower of all
true science. He to whom this emotion is a stranger, who can no
longer wonder and stand rapt in awe, is as good as dead. To know
that what is impenetrable to us really exists, manifesting itself as
the highest wisdom and the most radiant beauty which our dull
faculties can comprehend only in their most primitive forms-
this knowledge, this feeling is at the center of true religiousness.
The cosmic religious experience is the strongest and noblest
mainspring of scientific research [236].
Individually and collectively, these critical challenges to psy-
chic research raise valid concerns which merit deliberate atten-
tion and predicate great caution, and can also help to illuminate
some of the subtle phenomenological features. However, they
can perform these functions well only if they themselves are
informed, reasoned, and fair. Regrettably, from my reading of
the critical literature, this has not invariably been the case, and
instances of naiveté, selective representation of data and pro-
tocol, and excessive generalization also appear therein.
The role of the critic in psychic research is a most essential
one, perhaps more so than in any field of scholarship yet
broached. When the criticism is based in fact and experience
and is objective and fair, it can instill healthy discipline in the
study of this or any other difficult field and ensure that the
fundamental requisites of scientific methodology, e.g., dispas-
sionate rigor, humility in the face of observations, limitation
on extrapolation of results, and openness of mind will prevail
in the search. But it is equally essential that the process of
criticism play by these same rules. If it violates any of them,
if it lapses into categorical rejection, guilt by association, or
sloppy logic, it can become as suspect as the object of its
complaint, and thus fail in its proper role [237].
IMPLICATIONS
Despite their compounded length, the foregoing historical
outline, survey of contemporary activity, and selected ex-
amples of ongoing research and theoretical efforts are still far
from adequate to convey the full essence of this complex and
contradictory field. Fortunately an extensive body of refer-
ence literature exists, including a number of comprehensive
general volumes, whereby an interested reader may flesh out
this sketch and extend it to many aspects not broached here
[6], [44], [45], [56], [57], [92], [130], [238]-[242].
Hopefully, such more thorough study would tend to confirm
the general impressions of the status and prospects of the field
conveyed above. To restate these in summary, it appears that
once the illegitimate research and invalid criticism have been set
aside, the remaining accumulated evidence of psychic phenom-
ena comprises an array of experimental observations, obtained
under reasonable protocols in a variety of scholarly disciplines,
which compound to a philosophical dilemma. On the one hand,
effects inexplicable in terms of established scientific theory, yet
having numerous common characteristics, are frequently and
widely observed; on the other hand, these effects have so far
proven qualitatively and quantitatively irreplicable, in the strict
scientific sense, and appear to be sensitive to a variety of psycho-
logical and environmental factors that are difficult to specify,
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let alone control. Under these circumstances, critical experi-
mentation has been tedious and frustrating at best, and theoret-
ical modeling still searches for vocabulary and concepts, well
short of any useful formalisms.
Given these difficulties, what then are the motivations, if any,
to proceed? As for most speculative topics, three potential
generic benefits could be considered:
a) acquisition of fundamental knowledge,
b) practical applications,
c) humanistic benefits.
In this particular field, basic knowledge might accrue in two
ways-the attainment of new scientific information in the usual
sense, and the broadening of scientific methodology to deal
more effectively with irregular phenomena of this type. In other
words, study of this topic not only might provide certain phe-
nomenological answers, but also might serve to broaden the
context in which science can formulate its questions. New
mechanisms for transfer of information or energy might be
identified, or broader understanding of those properties, and
how they are perceived and measured might emerge. The latter
half of the opportunity clearly is a major challenge to science,
but hardly a new one. William James posed it rather bluntly
some eighty-five years ago:
The spirit and principles of science are mere affairs of method;
there is nothing in them that need hinder science from dealing
successfully with a world in which personal forces are the starting
point of new effects. The only form of thing that we concretely
have is our own personal life. The only completed category of
our thinking, our professors of philosophy tell us, is the category
of personality, every other category being one of the abstract
elements of that. And this systematic denial on science's part of
personality as a condition of events, this rigorous belief that in its
own essential and innermost nature our world is a strictly im-
personal world, may, conceivably, as the whirligig of time goes
round, prove to be the very defect that our descendants will be
most surprised at in our boasted science, the omission that to
their eyes will most tend to make it look perspectiveless and
short [24].
The potential applications of psychic process are best con-
sidered with conservatism and restraint, especially given the
tendency of certain elements of the public media and private
exploiters to extrapolate the possibilities far beyond any dem-
onstrated accomplishments. Clearly, the process of remote
perception described earlier, along with other forms of clair-
voyance, could hold some potential interest for intelligence
agencies, law enforcement units, and any other activity relying
on surveillance, as well as for archaeological searches, natural
resource prospecting, and the like, and such operations have
indeed engaged in empirical efforts to evaluate the efficacy of
such strategies in their particular domains. From a strictly
engineering standpoint, however, the potential efficiency and
precision of such tactics are unclear, given their apparent ten-
dency to trade more effectively in impressionistic generalities
than in analytical detail.
Low-level PK effects, such as the REG distortions indicated
above, could have more pervasive implications for high technol-
ogy. If, for example, the basic functions of microelectronic
elements could be even slightly disturbed by intentional or in-
advertent intervention of human consciousness, it would seem
important to obtain some assessment of the potential magni-
tude of such effects, and of the factors favoring or inhibiting
such interference, before much more elaborate integrated cir-
cuit arrays, graphic display systems, and other sensitive man/
machine interfaces are committed to delicate or critical opera-
tions. To focus our assessment of such possibilities, we are now
examining PK disturbance of the memory function of a single
microelectronic chip [243]. If the indications that psychologi-
cal and environmental factors bear on the precipitation of such
effects are sustained, it may be necessary to expand considera-
tion of such parameters beyond the usual scope of human
factors engineering, especially in situations involving high psy-
chological stress.
The potential humanistic benefits of better comprehension
of psychic phenomena could be addressed on either a personal
or social level, but to do so in any detail would far exceed the
purview of this article. Again, extensive references on various
facets of the issue abound [244]-[252]. Ultimately, most of
these philosophical excursions arrive at the same monumental
question, namely whether convincing demonstration of the
capability of human consciouness to influence its reality to a
significant degree would substantially alter individual and col-
lective perception of the human state, its value system, and
its behavior pattern, and thereby facilitate its evolution to a
higher life form. Such projections have been offered from a
variety of perspectives. Engineer/futurist Willis Harman fore-
casts an "inner experience" paradigm:
Just as conventional science depends upon a prior consensus
on how knowledge of the sense-perceived world shall be publicly
tested and validated, so the complementary paradigm will have
to include consensus on how knowledge relating to the world
of inner experience shall be publicly tested and validated.
Its essential characteristic would be that consciouness and its
contents are primary data, rather than being secondary and de-
rivative as in the conventional paradigm. Where the conventional
paradigm involves reductionistic models the complementary para-
digm would add holistic models; where the first employs deter-
ministic (or stochastic) explanations of events the second would
add teleological, purpose-recognizing explanations; where the first
is little involved with matters of values and meaning, the second
finds these of central concern; where the first is dominated by
technology-focused values of prediction and control, the second
would tend to value understanding relating to human well-being,
development and evolution [221].
Biologist/immunologist Jonas Salk phrases it more in terms of
a resonance of human volition with natural processes:
Man has come to the threshold of a state of consciousness, re-
garding his nature and his relationship to the Cosmos, in terms that
reflect 'reality.' By using the processes of Nature as metaphor,
to describe the forces by which it operates upon and within Man,
we come as close to describing 'reality' as we can within the limits
of our comprehension. Men will be very uneven in their capacity
for such understanding, which, naturally, differs for different ages
and cultures, and develops and changes in the course of time. For
these reasons it will always be necessary to use metaphor and
myth to provide 'comprehensible' guides to living. In this way,
Man's imagination and intellect play vital roles in his survival and
evolution [249].
And philosopher/paleontologist Teilhard de Chardin states his
hope in terms of a collective consciousness of the human race:
Thus we find ourselves in the presence, in actual possession, of
the super-organism we have been seeking, of whose existence we
were intuitively aware. The collective mankind which the sociol-
ogists needed for the furtherance of their speculations and formu-
lations now appears scientifically defined, manifesting itself in its
proper time and place, like an object entirely new and yet awaited
in the sky of life. It remains for us to observe the world by the
light it sheds, which throws into astonishing relief the great en-
semble of everyday phenomena with which we have always lived,
without perceiving their reality, their immediacy or their vastness
[253].
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165
On a somewhat less lofty, but possibly more functional level,
a recent lengthy study prepared for the House of Representa-
tives Science and Technology Committee, in a section encourag-
ing serious assessment of further research on "the physics of
consciousness," stated that recent experiments:
suggest that there exists an 'interconnectiveness' of the human
mind with other minds and with matter; . . . that the human mind
may be able to obtain the information independent of geography
and time
and later concluded that:
... a general recognition of the degree of interconnectiveness
of minds could have far-reaching social and political implications
for this nation and the world [254].
The details and tones of these visions clearly are matters of
individual heritage, experience, and intuition, but the messages
share a common theme: the next stage in human evolution may
involve expansion and interconnection of human consciousness,
features clearly central to the psychic concept.
Beyond the difficulty of the phenomena and potential bene-
fits of the knowledge, a more prosaic factor to be considered
in contemplating further psychic research is the requisite cost
of the effort. To date, such experimentation has been extra-
ordinarily inexpensive by usual scientific standards. The primi-
tive level of comprehension, the lack of organized interest within
the established scientific communities, and the Bohemian status
of many of the investigators have predicated projects of very
low budgets compounding to a total annual national investment
of the order of one million dollars or less [255]. Clearly, if
more incisive progress is to be attempted, some increase in the
sophistication and interaction of the principal programs must
be funded, but it is most unlikely, and for the time probably
undesirable, that this will consume any magnitude of resources
comparable with, or distractive from, the better established re-
search domains. A comparable statement could be made with
respect to commitments of the requisite scholarly personnel.
If on the basis of such cost/risk/benefit considerations a
modest ongoing program of research seems justified, it re-
mains to consider the selection of topics, experimental styles,
and evaluation criteria which would optimize the effort at this
stage. In addition to the obvious desiderata that the specific
experiments be clearly posed, conceptually simple, lend them-
selves logistically to rigorous, tightly controlled protocols, and
focus on the more tractable and potentially applicable effects,
three more specific recommendations could be offered.
First, given the irregularity of the phenomena, their possible
dependence upon a broad range of physical, psychological,
physiological, and environmental parameters, and their ten-
dency to display effects as marginal deviations from some
"normal" distributions, some premium should probably be
placed on the capacity of the experiments for large data base
accumulation and processing. While less prolific studies may
continue to provide interesting anecdotal effects and suggest
procedures for more detailed programs, it is unlikely that much
correlation of those effects with pertinent prevailing parameters
can be achieved without large quantities of data. More specifi-
cally, the favored experiments should 1) deal with processes
found to have relatively high intrinsic yields; 2) employ equip-
ment and protocols which permit data acquisition at rapid rates;
and 3) have access to computational equipment and software
which allow storage of large data arrays and processing of that
data in many selective cross-concatenations. As an example,
the latest refinement of the REG experiment described earlier
allows acquisition, storage, and primary processing of several
hundred experimental trials (~105 - 106 bits) per hour, and
subsequent concatenation of all previously stored data by any
permutation of ten parametric indices, e.g., sampling rate,
manual/automatic, volitional/instructed, operator characteris-
tics, etc. For any such parametric explorations to be indicative,
the pertinent data subset must be adequately large to display
any systematic deviation from the baseline distribution beyond
the statistical noise background. This we have found to re-
quire at least several thousand trials; the implication for the
total data base is clear.
This very large data capability inevitably predicates a sophis-
tication in equipment and software which, beyond the initial
and operating expenses, may introduce some undesirable effects
of complicating the phenomenological processes and clouding
the experimental ambiences. Specifically, one needs to consider
whether any observed effects, in either the PK or ESP categories,
still trace unequivocally to the primary physical processes, or
whether there now might arise confounding interactions with
elements of the data collection and processing equipment or
techniques. Related to this concern are possible uncertainties
of the participants in defining and focusing on the primary
tasks.
Reservations of this sort lead directly to a second general rec-
ommendation for effective psychic experimentation. Namely, if
the phenomena derive to any significant degree from conscious
or subconscious processes of the human mind, it is important
that such not be inhibited or excessively complicated by the
design and operation of the experiments. For this and numer-
ous other reasons, it is probably essential in planning and im-
plementing the experimental programs to include the insights,
interpretations, and intuitions of the human operators, espe-
cially those who have demonstrated some success in the gen-
eration of the phenomena. It is quite possible that the differ-
ence between a sterile experiment and an effective one of equal
rigor lies as much in the impressionistic aspects of its ambience
and feedback as in the elegance of its instrumentation, and the
former need to be well-tuned to the participants who are asked
to function as components of the experimental system. On oc-
casion, there seems to have been some tendency in this field to
treat the experimental participants in rather perfunctory fash-
ion, discounting any insights they might offer on the tasks at
hand. If one subscribes at all to the concept of the phenomena
emerging from some interpenetration of analytic and intuitive
processes as suggested by the holistic models, there would seem
no better place to combine perceptions and insights from these
two domains than in the design, operation, and interpretation
of the experiments addressed to illumination of the interface.
Finally, it seems most evident that given the intrinsic trans-
disciplinary nature of the business, research on this topic in
any established sector should become much more communica-
tive and interactive across traditional scholarly boundaries if it
is to have any hope of rendering the phenomena into compre-
hensible and serviceable terms. This cross-talk cannot be
limited to naturally contiguous fields, à la the usual exchange
between physicist and engineer, or between psychologist and
sociologist. As its lengthy heritage illustrates, in this domain
the interests and insights of the theologian, philosopher, statis-
tician, technologist, hard scientist, and creative holistic thinker
are all potentially valid, and need to be melded in scholarly
symbiosis and common respect. No insular approach is likely
to prevail.
This requisite has implications for the staffing of particular
projects, for the institutional environment in which they oper-
ate, and for the professional societies and publications which
choose to attend to this topic. Individual laboratory personnel
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 70, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1982
groups should comprise a broader range of experience and in-
sight than the conventional hierarchy of technical specialists,
and their cognizance of other contemporary work should be
broader. The institution housing that laboratory needs to dis-
play considerable tolerance and support for the unusual tone
and special requirements of the research and not force its con-
formity to established scientific subdivisions and research styles.
Likewise, the professional community at large cannot at this
time profitably ask for total adherence to its own reductionistic
superstructure, but can only inquire dispassionately regarding
the respective implications of this conglomerate field for the
traditional areas of endeavor.
In this last regard, I should like to express my personal re-
spect for this particular Society, and for this particular Journal,
for the openness and generosity of spirit with which they have
solicited and presented the results of legitimate scholarly effort
in this difficult field. Their attitude could well stand as a model
for other institutions and organs in dealing with this topic or
with any other present or future projective area of human
inquiry.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to express his indebtedness to his re-
search colleague, Ms. B. J. Dunne, who has provided immense
logistical help in the preparation of this manuscript and who,
as laboratory manager of the Princeton Engineering Anomalies
Research program, has played a primary role in the generation
and interpretation of much of the data reported herein. Dr.
R. D. Nelson also contributed heavily to the experimental pro-
gram and to the refinement of the manuscript. Prof. W. H.
Surber designed much of the REG circuitry and software, and
wrote the original programs for the remote perception analytical
judging procedure.
The program has also benefitted immensely from the interests
and efforts of several present and past students and staff, most
notably C. K. Curry (Dunham), E. G. Jahn, T. A. Curtis, and
I. A. Cook.
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