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Approved‘Far
STANFORD RESEARCH INSTITUTE:
Meniot Fark- California 94025 -U.S.A.
00007000900072
PHYSICS, ENTROPY, AND PSYCHOKINESIS
Harold Puthoff and Russell Targ
Stanford Research Institute
Electronics and Bioengineering Laboratory
To be presented at the Conference on Quantum Physics and Parapsychology
Geneva, Switzerland, August 26-27, 1974
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101

In this paper we present results of recent
experiments at Stanford
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Research Institute which indicate anew that certain individuals are capable
of producing physical effects in the environment by means of some as yet
unidentified modality, generally referred to psychic or psychoenergetic.
Such phenomena have of course been under scientific consideration for
over a century.
However, even a cursory review of the literature reveals
that in spite of well-conducted experiments by reputable researchers yielding
reproducible results (e.g., Sir William Crookes'study of D.D. Home, or
von Reichenbach's researches as reported in The Dynamics , London, 1851) ,
the study of these phenomena has never emerged from the realm of quasi-
scientific speculation.
One reason for this is that, in spite of experi-
mental results, no satisfactory theoretical construct has to date been
advanced to correlate data or predict new experimental outcomes. Consequently,
the area in question remains in the recipe stage reminiscent of electrodynamics
before the unification brought about by the work of Ampere, Faraday, and
Maxwell.
The overall goal of our research program is the determination of the
laws underlying these phenomena. That is, our goal is not just to catalog
interesting events, but rather to uncover patterns of cause-effect ralation-
ships of the type that lend themselves to analysis and hypothesis in the
form with which we are familiar in scientific study.
The results presented
here constitute for us a first step toward that goal, in that we are estab-
lishing under known conditions a data base from which departures as a function
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1
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observations to date have led us to conclude that such phenomena can be
studied under laboratory conditions.
It is our expectation that with the
sensitive instrumentation and powerful theoretical tools presently available,
progress in this field will be forthcoming.
..
.
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-
Magnetometer Observation (Pilot Experiment)
.
One of the first psychoenergetically-produced physical effects
observed by SRI personnel (H.P.) in early research (1972) was the apparent
perturbation of a superconductor-shielded Josephson effect magnetometer
by a gifted subject, Mr. Ingo Swann.
Following is a fairly detailed
account of that first observation, since it reveals a. number of aspects
of PK research that we consider to be of significance.
This magnetometer is located in a well under a building and is shielded
by u-metal shielding, an aluminum container, copper shielding and, most
important, a superconducting niobium shield.
(See Fig. 1). The magnet-
ometer is of the superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID)
variety, which has an output voltage whose frequency is a measure of the
rate of change of magnetic field present.
Before the experiment, a decaying magnetic field had been set up
inside the magnetometer, and its decay with time provided a background
calibration signal that registered as a periodic output on an x-y recorder,
the frequency of the output corresponding to the decay rate of the
calibration field (~10
-6
Gauss). The system had been running for about
an hour with no noise.
+
Mr. Swann was shown the setup and told that if he were to affect the
magnetic field in the magnetometer, it would show up as a change in the
output recording. Then, to use his own description, he placed his atten-
i
tion on the interior of the magnetometer, at-which-time-the-frequency of
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.
DEWAR
M-METAL
SHIELD
FALSE
FLOOR
FLOOR OF
BUILDING
CONCRETE
CASING
CONCRETE BLOCK
12"
-
FIGURE
1
MAGNETOMETER HOUSING CONSTRUCTION
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the output doubled for about two of the cycles or roughly thirty seconds.
This is indicated by A in Figure 2. Mr. Swann was next asked if he could
:
stop the field
change being indicated by the periodic output on the
recorder.
He then apparently proceeded to do just that, as can be seen
at B in the graph, for a period of roughly forty five seconds. He then
"let go," at which time the output returned to normal (C). Upon inquiry
as to what he had done, he explained that he had direct vision of the
.
apparatus inside and that the act of looking at different parts seemed to
him to be correlated with the different effects. As he described what he
was doing, the recording again traced out a double frequency cycle (shown
at D), as had occurred before. An atypical dip (E) in the recording took
place then, and on questioning him about what was happening, he said he
was looking at a new part, the niobium ball sitting in a cup. This ball was
inert at the time, not being used in the magnetometer experiment. He was
asked to refrain from thinking about the apparatus, and the normal pattern
was then traced out for several minutes (continued on lower trace) while
he was engaged in conversation on other subjects.
At one point he started
to discuss the magnetometer again, at which point the tracing went into
a high frequency pattern, shown at F. At our request he stopped, and the
observation was terminated because Mr. Swann was tired from his effort.
We then left the lab, while the apparatus was run for over an hour with no
trace of noise or nonuniform activity, as indicated in Figure 3, where the
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:

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E
B
C
W
PLITHOFF
9
:00
€40
2499
F
FIGURE 2
RAW DATA, MAGNETOMETER TEST RUN
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D
1:D
.10
FIGURE 3 RAW DATA, MAGNETOMETER CONTROL RUN
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top
two traces show a continuing record following termination of the experi-
ment.
The third trace was taken some time later, the increase in the period
indicating the reduced rate of magnetic field decay. At various times
during this and the following day when similar data with Mr. Swann were
taken, the experiment was observed by numerous other scientists.
:
The conditions of this observation, involving as it did a few
hours use of an instrument committed to other research, of course prevented
a proper investigation. The number of data samples was too few to permit
meaningful statistical analysis, and the lack of readily-available multiple
recording equipments prevented investigation of possible "recorder only"
effects. Therefore, the following longer term study with a similar device
was undertaken.
t
,
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Experiments with a Superconducting Differential Magnetometer (Gradiometer)
A series of experiments were carried out using a Develco Model
8805 superconducting second-derivative gradiometer manufactured by Develco,
Inc., Mountain View, California.
The assembled device is shown in Figure 4.
Basically, the gradiometer is a four-coil Josephson effect magnet-
ometer device consisting of a pair of coil pairs wound so as to provide a
series connection of two opposing first-derivative gradiometers, yielding
a second-derivative gradiometer (i.e., a device sensitive only to second
and higher order derivative fields.) As a result, the device is relatively
insensitive to uniform fields and to uniform gradients. This arrangement
allows for sensitive measurement of fields from nearby sources while dis-
criminating against relatively uniform magnetic fields produced by remote
sources.
The device is ordinarily used to measure magnetic fields originating
from processes within the human body, such as action currents in the heart
which produce magnetocardiograms. The sensitive tip of the instrument is
simply placed near the body area of interest.
In our 'application, however, the subject is located at a distance
of four meters from the gradiometer probe. As a result, the subject is
located in a zone of relative insensitivity; e.g., standing up, sitting down,
leaning forward, and arm and leg movements produce no signals. From this
location the subject is asked, as a mental task, to affect the probe. The
results of his efforts are available to him as feedback from three sources:
an oscilloscope, a panel meter, and a chart recorder, the latter providing
a permanent record.
.
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4
MEDICAL CRACIOMETER
:
i
.
FIGURE 4
SUPERCONDUCTING DIFFERENTIAL MAGNETOMETER
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Approved For Release 2606/08/07: CAPRDP96-00787R000700090007ted as follows: .
The subject removes all metal objects, and the effects of body movements
are checked at the start of each experimental period. The subject then
works with the machine in a learning mode, observing effects being produced,
if any, via feedback from the instrumentation. Once satisfied that a
possibility exists of producing effects on command under experimenter
control, the experimenter announces the start of the experiment. A random-
ization protocol (discussed in the Appendix) is then used to generate ten
activity periods of equal length (e.g., twenty-five seconds) pre-deter-
mined by the experimenter.
A sample run with a second gifted subject, Mr. Patrick Price,
is shown in Figure 5. The randomly-generated ON (activity) periods are
Nos. 2, 8, and 9. As observed, signals appear in each of these three periods.
The signal appearing in period 9 was strong enough to cause loss of continuous
tracking. This latter type of signal can be the result of an exceptionally
strong flux change, or an RF burst whether subject-generated or artifactual,
and are handled on the basis of statistical correlation as discussed below.
An artifact due to the passage of a truck in the parking lot adjacent to the
laboratory (under continuous surveillance by the experimenter) is noted
in period 6.
..
Each of the signals on scale corresponds to an input ~ 1.6 x 10
.- 9
Gauss/cm
2
(second derivative
22B / a ), equivalent to ~ 3.5 x 10
-7
Gauss
referred to one pickup coil.
.
* RF interference effects are sometimes in evidence due to proximity to
other instrumentation.
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BASELINS
END
OFF
ON
ON
-
OFF
TRUCK
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
ON
-
OFF
BASELINE
START
-
Figure 5 -- Gradiometer data.
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The interpretation of such observations must be subjected to careful
analysis. For example, the emphasis on "corresponds to" is based on the
following: although the probe is designed to register magnetic fields, and
the simplest hypothesis is that an observed signal is such, in a task as
.
potentially complex as "psychokinesis", one must be cautious about assigning
a given observed effect to a specific cause. Therefore, until further work
with multiple measurement employing equally sensitive apparatus, one can
only conclude that generation of a magnetic field is the most probable
cause .
With regard to signal display, the signal was observed simultaneously
on three recording devices, and thus a "recorder only" effect can be considered
low probability, although an electronics interference effect ahead of all
display cannot be ruled out. We therefore treat the magnetic cause as
tentative, although most probable, and concentrate our attention on whether
a correlation exists between system disturbances and subject efforts.
Thirteen ten-trial runs were obtained with Mr. Price. Each of
the ten trials in the run lasted fifty seconds each,
X
the activity/no
acitivity command for each trial being generated by the randomization
technique discussed in the Appendix.
In the 13 x 10 = 130 trials, consisting
of a random distribution of 64 activity and 66 no-activity periods, 63
events of signal-to-noise ratio > I were observed. Of these 63 events, 42
were distributed among the activity periods, 21 among the no-activity periods,
a correlation significant at the p = 0.004 level.
* With the exception of the first run where 25-second trials were used.
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We therefore conclude that the observed number of precisely timed
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pilot
work coupled with the statistically significant (p = 0.004)
correlation between subject effort and signal output in controlled runs
indicate a highly probable cause-effect relationship.
Thus it appears that
a gifted subject can interact with a second derivative magnetic gradiometer
1
2 .
of sensitivity ~ 10
Gauss/cm
from a distance of four meters. Further
work would be required to determine absolutely the precise nature of the
interaction, although given the equipment design the generation of a magnetic
field is the most probable mechanism.
-
:
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Approved For Release 2000/08/07 .CIA-RDP96-00787R000700090007 Aty that a subject
may be able to exert a physical influence on a remotely located physical
system.
The target is a torsion pendulum suspended by a metal fiber inside
a sealed glass bell jar. The pendulum consists of three 100 gram balls
arranged symetrically at 120° angles on a 2 cm radius. The entire apparatus
.
is shock mounted, and protected from air currents by the enclosing bell
jar.
The angular position of the pendulum is measured by means of an
optical readout system. The system consists of a laser beam from a lo.
power argon laser
+
reflected from a small mirror on the pendulum onto a
position sensing silicon detector
十十
1.5 meters from the pendulum.
The
. detector yields an output voltage proportional to spot position.
The
output from the detector is monitored by a chart recorder
which provides
The system exhibits a sensitivity of approximately 10 microradians.
Under typical experimental conditions random accoustical fluctuations
drive the pendulum in its torsional normal mode of 10 second period to
.
a level ~ 100 microradians angular deviation.
During control runs
the pendulum executes harmonic motion with a maximum variation in
amplitude of
± 10 percent over an hour period. Sudden vibrational
perturbations in the environment produce oscillation of the pendulum
in the vertical plane at a frequency of 1 Hz, as contrasted with the
torsional mode in the horizontal plane at 0.1 Hz.
+ 'Spectra Physics Model 262
tt United Detector Technology Model SC/10
tt+ Brush Model Mark 200
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Approved For Release -asked as a mental task, to affect the pendulum motion,
the results of which would be available as feedback from the chart recorder .
The subject is then encouraged to work with the pendulum from a distance
of 1 meter, observing effects being produced. If satisfied that there
is a possibility of producing effects ( typically following a week's activity,
a couple of hours per day), an experiment is begun.
As in other experiments, subject efforts to increase or decrease
oscillation amplitude are determined by an experimenter utilizing the uni-
versal randomization protocol described in (a). Each experiment lasts one
hour and consists of six 5-minute work periods alternated with six 5-minute
rest periods.
In later work, the subject is removed to a room 12 meters down the
hall with three intervening office spaces to determine whether effects can
be produced from a remote location. The subject is provided feedback at
the remote location either by closed circuit video or by a second chart
.
recorder in parallel with the recorder in the enclosed target laboratory.
The remote aspect was instituted both to prevent artifactual effects from
body heat, etc., and also to determine whether energy can be coupled via
the remote viewing channel to a remote location.
+
+. Both experimental evidence and theoretical work indicate that distance
may not be a strong factor in paranormal phenomena. See, for example,
E.H. Walker "Properties of Hidden Variables in Quantum Theory: Impli-
cations for Paraphysics", U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratories,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland.
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in PILOT SCALES WE UNSERVER :LUNDIUELANDO CELULELE
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gifted subject located in the same room is able, by concentration, to increase
or decrease pendulum motion on command while sitting quietly one meter from
the bell jar. The change-to-baseline ratio is often 5:1 or better so the
·
effects are not small. A sample chart showing a rest period followed by a
decrease period is given in Figure 6.
Vibrational artifacts can be ruled out on the basis that when such inputs
occur, a marked 1 Hz oscillation signal due to vertical motion is superimposed
on the 0.1 Hz torsional motion. What is especially interesting are the
decreases which take the motion below that generally observed due to en-
vironmental noise driving. Such observations indicate the application of
a constraint which couples energy out of the pendulum motion.
Similar ob-
servations have been observed with the subject removed to the second location
12 meters away. Although less pronounced (change-to-baseline ratios typically
2:1), the effect remains easily observable.
. The universal randomization protocol is used throughout to determine
increase/decrease periods.
Control run data are being collected to be sub-
jected to the same analysis.
Multiple recording is used throughout to rule
out artifacts due to recorder effects. Finally, an electrometer with the
base of the bell jar serving as one electrode. is monitored to record acoustic
vibration independently. Due to the potential significance of such findings,
considerable data is being taken in order that the matter can be subjected to
statistical analysis over a large sample involving hundreds of work periods.
A few hundred data samples have already been collected for this purpose, an
the results will be published when available.
ʻ
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--
------
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-...
----
.......
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FIGURE 6 PENDULUM MOTION
Large amplitude variation corresponds to 0.1 Hz torsional mode
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Speculations
Here we present some speculations about the nature of the paradoxes
associated with psychoenergetically-produced physical phenomena. These
ideas fall into the category of intuition based on integration of obser-
vation over time. Thus, they are not conclusions drawn from statistically
significant data, but rather conceptualizations or hypotheses around which
specific experiments can be designed.
(1)
Researchers in the area of psychokinesis appear to be plagued :
by results whose amplitudes have a signal-to-noise ratio near unity, re-
gardless of the process or mechanism involved. A number of our observa-
tions indicate that, rather than simple perversity, what is being arti-
culated is a coherence phenomena involving partial mobilization of
:
system noise, and thus the magnitude constraint . That is, when a subject
is asked to interact with an experimental setup one often first observes
a reduction in noise followed by a signal, as if the components of the
noise spectrum had been brought into phase coherence.
--
The subject thus appears to act as a local negentropic source.
If true, it may be more advantageous as a practical matter to work with
extremely noisy . systems, rather than with highly constrained or organized
systems, in order to maximize possible effects due to the introduction
of order.
(2)
Psychokinetic phenomena often appear to be more the result of
:
coincidence than the effect of a well-defined cause. Again, rather than
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. being the result of the perversity of nature, the observed goal-oriented
synchronicity may indicate that physical systems are more easily manipu-
lated at the global level of boundary conditions and constraints rather
than at the level of mechanism. Thus, the apparency that a given desired
result can be explained away by a coincidental but "natural" event needs
to be explored more fully. Unexpected but natural causes may be the
effect of a series of causal links, outside the defined experimental
boundaries but representing an unforseen line of least resistance.
At
worst, such causal links may in fact be unobservable in the sense of the
hidden variables concept in quantum theory, but nevertheless, act as
.-
instruments of the will.
So is it climatice
€
(3)
Psychokinetic phenomena appear to be intrinsically spontaneous;
i.e., it is difficult to evoke psychokinetic phenomena/"on cue", with the
result that the phenomena is often considered to be not. under good control,
and therefore not amenable to controlled experimentation. This difficulty
is so pronounced that it is likely that we are observing some macroscopic
analog of a quantum transition, an event similarly unpredictable in time
except as a probability function.
If the analogy is correct, experimentation
in this area simply needs to be treated in the manner of, for example,
weak photon experiments.
.
(4)
Possibly related to item (3), the more closely one attempts to
1
1
observe psychokinetic phenomena, the less likely one is to see it, a
and is absence therefore is most conclusion proof
of its prescence
1
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.
(

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factor considered by many to support hypotheses of poor observation,
fraud, etc. To a sophisticated observer, however, simple dismissal does
not stand up under scrutiny.
Invoking again the idea of a macroscopic .
analog of a quantum transition, we may, as observers of delicate phenomena,
be witness to observer effects generally associated with the uncertainty
principle. Paradoxically, from the subject's viewpoint, the production
of the phenomena may also be an observer effect, perturbing as it does
the expected behavior of a piece of instrumentation. In this model the
scrutiny of psychokinetic phenomena under laboratory conditions could in
principle be considered to be a collective phenomena involving interfering
observer effects in a manner known to occur at the microscopic quantum
level.
(5)
Finally, we find it useful as a guiding principle to recognize
that all of the phenomena we deal with in macroscopic psychoenergetics
are totally permissible at the microscopic level within the framework
of physics as presently understood. It is simply that time reversibility,
tunneling through barriers, simultaneous multiple-state occupation, etc.,
are generally unobservable as gross macroscopic phenomena for statistical
reasons only, as codified in the concept of increasing disorder (entropy) .
.
Therefore, it may be appropriate to consider an individual with psychokinetic
abilities primarily as a source of ordering phenomena of sufficient mag-
nitude so as to restructure the otherwise random statistics of the macro-
scopic environment.
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SY Randomization Protocol
It was deemed desirable in our work to establish a universal randomi-
zation protocol independent of the particular experiment under consideration.
The only exceptions were to be automated experiments where target selection
is determined by radioactive decay or electronic randomization.
The randomization procedure is designed around a ten-unit base, e.g.,
ten targets, ten work periods, etc. A ten-digit sequence governing an
experiment is blind to both experimenter and subject, and is uncovered by
means of the following procedure. A three-page RAND Table of Random Digits
(Table 1) is entered to obtain the ten-digit sequence, the entrance point
being determined by four throws of a die,'
+
the first 1, 2, or 3 determining
page, the next 1, 2, 3, or 4 determining column block, and the final throw
determining from which of the first six rows in the block the ten-digit
sequence is to be taken. An opaque card with a single-digit window is
then moved across the row to uncover digits one at a time. If a multiplicity
of targets exist, the digits 0 through 9 are employed directly. If a binary
command is required (e.g., increase/decrease or activity/no activity)
the
parity of the digit (even or odd) is employed.
+ A technique found in control runs to produce a distribution of die faces
differing nonsignificantly from chance expectation.
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.....

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Table of Random Digits *
11 16 43 63 18
75 06 13 76 74
21 21 59 17 91
76 83 15 86 78
40 60 31 61 52
40 94 15 35 85
69 95 86 09 16
10 43 84 44 82
66 55 83 76 49
73 50 58 34 72
55 95 31 79 57
36 79 22 62 36
33 26 66 65 83
39 41 21 60 13
11 44 28 93 20
73 94 40 47 73
12 03 25 14 14
57 99 47 67 48
54 62 74 85 11
49 56 31 28 72
64 20 84 82 37
41 70 17 31 17
91 40 27 72 27
79 51 62 10 07
51 48 67 28 75
38 60 52 93 41
58 29 98 38 80
20 12 51 07 94
99 75 62 63 60
64 51 61 79 71
40 68 49 99 48
33 88 07 64 13
71 32 55 52 17
13 01 57 29 07
75 97 86 42 98
08 07 46 20 55
65 28 59 71 98
12 13 85 30 10
34 55 63 98 61
88 26 77 60 68
17 26 45 73 27
38 22 42 93 01
65 99 05 70 48
25 06 77 75 71
95 63 99 97 54
31 19 99 25 58
86 21 01 18 08
52 45 88 88 80
78 35 26 79 13
78 13 79 87 68
04 68 98 71 30
33 00 78 56 07
92 00 84 48 97
62 49 09 92 15
84 98 72 87 59
38 71 23 15 12
08 58 86 14 90
24 21 66 34 44
21 28 30 70 44
58 72 20 36 78
19 18 66 96 02
16 97 59 54 28
33 22 65 59 03
26 18 86 94 97
51 35 14 77 99
59 13 83 95 42
71 16 85 76 09
12 89 35 40 48
07 25 58 61 49
29 47 85 96 52
50 41 43 19 66
33 18 68 13 46
85 09 53 72 82
96 15 59 50 09
27 42 97 29 18
79 89 32 94 48
88 39 25 42 11
29 62 16 65 83
62 96 61 24 68
48 44 91 51 02
44 12 61 94 38
12 63 97 52 91
71 02 01 72 65
94 20 50 42 59
68 98 35 05 61
14 54 43 71 34
54 71 40 24 01
09 83 41 13 33
38 64 80 92 78
81 31 37 74 00
83 40 38 88 27
67 64 20 52 04
30 69 74 48 06
04 29 24 60 28
17 02 64 97 37
85 87 51 21 39
64 04 19 90 11
61 04 02 73 09
48 07 07 68 48
02 53 19 77 37
17 04 89 45 23
97 44 45 99 04
30 15 99 54 50
83 77 84 61 15
93 03 98 94 16
52 79 51 06 31
12 14 89 22 31
31 36 16 06 50
82 24 43 43 92
96 60 71 72 20
73 83 87 70 67
24 86 39 75 76
96 99 05 52 44
70 69 32 52 55
73 54 74 37 59
95 63 23 95 55
09 11 97 48 03
97 30 38 87 01
07 27 79 32 17
79 42 12 17 69
57 66 64 12 04
47 58 97 83 64
65 12 84 83 34
07 49 32 80 98
46 49 26 15 94
26 72 95 82 72
38 71 66 13 80
60 21 20 50 99
08 43 31 91 72
08 32 02 08 39
31. 92 17 64 58
73 72 00 86 57
10 01 17 50 04
86 05 44 11 90
57 23 82 74 64
61 48 75 23 29
92 42 06 54 31
16 53 00 55 47
24 21 94 10 90
08 53 16 15 78
-35 54 25 58 65
07 30 44 70 10
31 30 94 93 87
02 33 00 24 76
86 59 52 62 47
18 55 22 94 91
20 75 09 70 24
72 61 96 66 28
72 11 53 49 85
58 03 69 91 37
28 53 78 43 95
26 65 43 78 51
. This table appears through the courtesy of The RAND Corporation and the
McGraw-Hill Bouk Company, Inc. and is reprinted by permission from The Compleat
Strategyst, by J. D. Williams, pp. 219-221 [44].
1
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16 38 11 50 69
25 41 68 78 75
61 55 57 64 04
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PERCEPTION
00700090007-1
SG11
The following brief summary presents some conclusions and
observations derived from an independent, and somewhat critical,
study of extrasensory perception over the past several months.
These
opinions are based upon study of the literature, material presented
. at the Geneva Conference of the Parapsychology Foundation in August
1974 and, in particular, the work of Puthoff and Targ at SRI as
reflected in their publications as well as their oral presentation
in Washington. First some general observations and recommendations
in this area are presented, then a brief comment on the SRI work,
and finally some remarks about practical applications.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1.
A large body of reliable experimental evidence points to the
inescapable: conclusion that extrasensory perception does exist
as a real phenomenon, albeit characterized by rarity and lack
of reliability. It appears as a low-capacity, high-noise
information channel exhibiting data rates orders of magnitude
less than normal perceptive processes. Almost by definition
extra-sensory perception must involve in an essential way the
operation of the human mind.
2.
There exists no satisfactory theoretical understanding of
these phenomena. Present theories, of which there are many,
are both speculative and unsubstantiated. They range in content
from. the physical through the psychological to the metaphysical.
One theory- that of the French physicist, Costa de Beauregard-
offers the possibility of interpreting psi phenomena within
a modest extension of established physical theory, but in general
these efforts appear premature. At this stage of knowledge
the most meaningful basic research consists of a search for
correlates- physical, physiological, and psychological- to
which the phenomena may be quantitatively related.
Guidance
must consist of general ideas which are not dependent upon
possibly overspecific theoretical assumptions.
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3.
All the experimental evidence to date is consistent with the
assumption that paranormal perception behaves as an information
channel in the conventional sense of information theory. The
information theoretic approach to investigation in this area
has probably not been adequately exploited but offers definite
possibilities of aiding understanding as well as practical
advantages. The success of enhancement techniques such as
redundancy, majority vote, etc. is indicative of the efficacy
of even simple applications of information theory in parapsychological
research.
a. Information theory in itself makes no assumptions of specific
mechanism, but contains a body of concepts ( bit rate, redundancy,
equivocation, etc. ) by which experimental results may be
quantitatively presented and analysed. Moreover these quantities
have direct meaning in terms of applications.
b. Although problems of coding are of central concern in information
theory, it is innately an input-output theory. Experiments can
be devised to measure information rates in comparatively unstructured
situations, independently of coding assumptions.
c. The very low information rates ( 0.01 to 0.1 bits/sec ) measured
in extrasensory perception may explain the failure to detect
physical energy or correlated physical variables associated with
the phenomena. A signal lower in strength than thermal noise and
only detectable through its high redundancy would exhibit a similar
low rate of information transmission. Physical energy less than
thermal noise would be very difficult to detect.
4.
The complete ESP channel may or may not involve a detectable
physical link, but it most certainly does involve a psychological
one. Although difficult to quantify there do appear to exist some
genuine psychological correlates of paranormal perception. Rather
than detail these, mention is made of only one aspect which seems
especially significant, namely the striking similarity between
many psychological features of paranormal perception and normal,
though subliminal perception. Clearly this suggests that similar
processes may be operative in both cases and that studies of
subliminal perception below the conscious threshold may be of
relevance to the psychological part of paranormal perception.
5.
.
The physiological correlates of extrasensory perception which have
been measured are autonomic responses and therefore somewhat related
to emotional responses.
Variations of EEG alpha rhythm, galvanic
skin resistance and blood capillary volume have all been identified
in relation to extrasensory activity. There is some experimental
evidence for believing that these physiological responses may be
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.
This assertion needs expansion

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more sensitive indicators of paranormal communication than
consciously controlled responses. Presumably a large part
of the noise in the paranormal channel originates by the
interfering effect of conscious processes, and measurement
of autonomic responses could short circuit a noisy part of
the channel. Also the physiological responses themselves
are directly accessible to physical, instead of only psychological,
measurement.
THE RESEARCH AT STANFORD RESEARCH INSTITUTE
The work at SRI, using gifted individuals, has acheived some
convincing and striking demonstrations of the existence of paranormal
perception, and has demonstrated perhaps less convincingly the
possible existence of psychokinetic influences upon sophisticated
physical instrumentation. The careful and systematic use of sensory
shielding in these experiments has excluded a large class of gross
physical correlates of paranormal perception. The work has been
less successful in showing unambiguous relations of inhibition or
enhancement between paranormal performance and possible physical,
physiological, and psychological conditions.
The enhancement method
used was selection of special individuals either through prior
reputation or through preliminary screening.
Thus the approach was
one of enhancement through selectivity rather than enhancement
(or inhibition) by deliberate manipulation of variables. This research
produced some information, measurement of alteration of alpha rhythm;
amplitude and measurement of neurological profiles, relevant to the
question of correlates but was not aimed primarily in this direction.
The contribution to fundamental understanding was a minor part of
this work, but it produced manifestations of extrasensory perception
sufficiently sharp and clear cut to justify serious consideration of
possible applications.
7
1
This
negates Du
"learners"
aissentzón
99.IT.
A separate point is that the high apparent bit rate of information
transmission implied by successful replication of drawings or recital
of detailed descriptions may be illusory. In no case was the percipient
asked to replicate or describe unfamiliar or unknown objects. A low
bit rate may trigger detailed stored associations which in themselves
have high information content.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
No matter how gifted the paragnost existing ignorance of the basis
of paranormal phenomena together with the capricious and unreliable
nature of the channel dictate that information derived from this source
can never stand alone and must be used with caution. Extrasensory
.
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information should at best supplement normal information or guide its
collection, but should never serve in place of it. Even such limited
use of this information channel would seem to require much more detailed
investigation of its character and limitations. A certain bare minimum
of understanding, or at least experience, is required to establish
confidence. Experimental tests guided by a thorough information theoretic
analysis, as alluded to earlier, offer the closest coupling with
applications and the best prospect of usefully quantifying the capabilities
of this information channel.
:
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