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Electro/77
Special Session
The State of the Art in
Psychic Research
.
Electro77 Professional Program
New York, April 19-21, 1977
Copyright@ 1977 Electro
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INDEX
SPECIAL EVENING SESSION
THE STATE OF THE ART IN PSYCHIC RESEARCH
SESSION ORGANIZER
Russel Targ
Stanford Research Institute
Menlo Park, Ca.
SESSION CHAIRMAN
Dr. George Pezdirtz
Director of Energy Storage Div.
ERDA
Washington, D.C.
7
A Look at the Exceptional.
Astronaut Edgar D. Mitchell, Sc.D, P.O. Box 2015,
Palm Beach, FL.
2
Direct Perception of Remote Geographical Locations. Harold E. Putoff and Russell
Targ, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, CA.
3
Possible EEG Correlates to Remote Stimuli Under Conditions of Sensory Shielding.
E. C. May, Russell Targ, and H. E. Putoff, Stanford Research Institute,
Menlo Park, CA.
4
An Investigation of Soviet PsychicalResearch. E. C. Wortz, A. S. Bauer, R. F. Blackwelder,
J. W. Eerkens, and A. J. Saur. AiResearch Manufacturing Company of California,
2525 W. 190th St., Torrance, CA.
5
Improving Real Time ESP By Suppressing the Future:
Trans-Temporal Inhibition.
Charles T. Tart, University of California, Davis, CA.
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A LOOK AT THE EXCEPTIONAL
Edgar D. Mitchell, Sc. D.
INTRODUCTION
An inherent danger for a maturing democra-
tized society, is that the pursuit of egalitar-
ian goals creates neglect of the very charac-
teristics which allow attainment of success;
that is, the pursuit of excellence, emphasis on
creativity and nurturing of those exceptional
human beings who possess the rare talents need-
ed in the vanguard of human progress.
Without
such talents being utilized by leadership
throughout history, mankind would still be
struggling in the dark ages.
If a modern soci-
ety fails to continually cultivate those areas
where creative intelligence can mature into ex-
ceptional capabilities, the society will find
itself slipping back toward the more primitive
values and institutions characteristic of mun-
dane leadership.
Noble social goals to improve the lot of
the least talented cannot possibly succeed
without developing the highest capabilities of
the most talented who can lead the way.
"To give a fair chance to potential
creativity is a matter of life and
death for any society. This is all
important because the outstanding
creative ability of a fairly small
percentage of the population is man-
kind's ultimate asset and the only
one with which Man has been endowed."
. Toynbee -- January 19661
To emphasize this need-whereas United
States Federal expenditures for social better-
ment is hovering near the 50% mark of the to-
tal budget of about $400 billion dollars, the
most recent figures show only 2.56 million de-
voted to training, understanding and research
of "gifted" individuals and their exceptional
talents. This is approximately .0013% of the
Federal expenditures for achieving social goals
and is a distressingly small investment consid-
ering the magnitude of the problem.
The creative, cognitive and intellectual
potential of the human mind is vast and of al-
most limitless variation. On the other hand,
the characteristics that distinguish the un-
usual talent from mediocrity are not at all un-
derstood.
In fact, some of the unusual talents
possessed by a few are not even believed, much
less understood.
It is toward such understanding and what it
could achieve that this author's effort is
devoted.
A century of competent but always contro-
versial research by dedicated men and women of
science demonstrates convincingly, for those
who will study the record, that a variety of ex-
traordinary capabilities are indeed facts of our
existence. Further it seems, human beings are
usually, and probably always the causative
agents. Not only is the range of verifiable
events quite large, but the lines of evidence
point to little understood properties of our hu-
man mental machinery as perpetrator of, or at
least collaborator in, these events. They have
been inappropriately described as: miraculous,
PARAphysical, PARAnormal, SUPERnatural, "spirits"
and other such terms which make a traditional-
ist's skin crawl. For this reason, it is im-
portant to dispel any notion that this paper
will give strength to ideas of "unnaturalness".
Let us attempt to cut through superstition and
myth and get to the crux of the matter regard-
ing cause, but keeping in mind that "natural"
does not necessarily imply a "material" or con-
ventional viewpoint. Quite the contrary.
To the extent that each of the reported
capabilities is valid and observable, it is part
of the natural order of the universe which peo-
ple in science attempt to understand. There are
no unnatural or supernatural phenomena, only
very large gaps in our knowledge of what is nat-
ural, particularly regarding relatively rare
occurences. We should strive to fill those gaps
of ignorance. The fact that claims about many
phenomena have associated with them a high
"giggle factor" and have historically attracted
an unsavory assortment of cranks, quacks, frauds
and charlatans who prey upon the gullible,
should not deter the dedicated investigator from
seeking the truth. Let it be remembered that in
the world of science, the methods and the sub-
jects one must use for observations are not al-
ways neat, clean and tidy. In its infancy,
pathology was dependent upon grave robbers, and
microbiology is indebted to contents of the
chamber pot in order to gain knowledge about
human functioning. No less onerous is the en-
vironment of the contemporary investigator who
chooses to study the functioning of extraordin-
ary human mental processes.
Only in recent months, after many years of
effort by a handful of dedicated investigators,
including individuals presenting their results
at this conference, has it been possible to
bring certain investigations out of the closet
and to publish research results in prestigious
professional journals. This fact reflects
equally the perseverance of the investigators
and the entrenched rigidity of our scientific
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traditionalism.
With all candor, however, it must be stated
that of the varied forms of extraordinary men-
tal activity, the most shunned of which bear
that distressing label "psychic", only a few
have yet achieved a sufficient level of scien-
tific control and scrutiny to be repeatably
demonstrable under laboratory conditions. Some
that meet the test are: telepathy, precognition,
clairvoyance and now, remote viewing, which per-
haps includes several of the other categories.
These forms of activity rightly deserve to be
accepted and explained by the scientific com-
munity at large.
There are numerous other events, however,
which are quite real but relatively more rare,
and which have proven to be more difficult to
control. These have yet to be adequately docu-
mented in the manner required by our tradition-
al methodology. This is true as much because
of the limitation of our methods and concepts
as the rarity of events. We must remember that
it is not nature's task to adapt to our rigid,
and often erroneous, preconceived notions, but
rather our task to be sufficiently creative and
intelligent to understand the myriad clues
nature gives us. The experienced field inves-
tigator who has travelled to different parts of
the world to observe and measure in situ those
individuals who possess these extraordinary
faculties should be heeded. Many have arrived
at the conclusion that, in fact, ALL the vari-
ous reported events can be, and often are, gen-
uine occurrences. I refer in these cases not
only to prodigious feats of computation and mem-
ory, but more specifically to major psychokine-
tic phenomena which have been observed and
reported by reliable investigators. None of
these have, as yet, been sufficiently studied
under laboratory conditions. It is this auth-
or's contention, however, that in the fullness
of time, the entire class of psychokinetic
events will be learned and brought under the
conscious control of a sufficiently large sample
of individuals that field studies can move into
the laboratory where more careful scrutiny is
possible.
It is because many experienced observers
agree strongly with the view that all the men-
tal functions now considered extraordinary will,
in due course, be made more ordinary; that it
is time to speculate about what this will mean
to our social functioning and institutions. Is
there an obvious impact not only on our think-
ing and way of daily life, but also on our val-
ues?
Toward that end, let us analyze that class
of extraordinary human mental functioning often
referred to as "psychic" and from the sparse
knowledge we currently have, speculate what is
likely to happen should this class of events
move out of the realm of extraordinary and be-
come more accepted, and perhaps more available
to human beings.
Preliminary indications are that the poten-
tial for psychic functioning is like musical
talent, widely but not uniformly distributed.
Further, in the western cultures, there are good
indications that it has been suppressed as being
evil or alternatively, psychotic. Like other
talents, it requires a certain level of skill
and technique, which apparently can be developed
with proper training and perseverance. The de-
gree to which an individual, or group of indi-
viduals, can become more proficient in psychic
functioning, and the factors that govern profi-
ciency are still not clear. One should not
lightly dismiss the admonitions of mystics of
nearly every culture who seem, as a group, to be
the most proficient. They urge caution and have
for centuries cloaked their rites in secrecy and
ritualistic language. In order to gain the for-
bidden knowledge, they prescribe ascetic disci-
plines of behavior and training to safely
achieve the emotional stability and spiritual
purity necessary for proficient functioning.
Whether these precautions are valid, or whether
they serve merely to preserve the status and
mystique of the elite few, is a proper subject
for conjecture.
For the purpose of this speculation on soc-
ietal implications, assume that satisfactorily
safe training can be effected and permit us to
classify the events into the following categor-
ies:
I.
Animate awareness. This includes the
traditional categories of telepathy
and pre and post cognition and in-
cludes the subsets: self-awareness
and awareness of other animate life
forms
II.
Matter awareness. This also includes
traditional categories but is distin-
guishable from category I in that the
information received pertains to other
than the animate universe.
III.
Animate control. This category is
concerned with the active processes
of exerting direct or indirect influ-
ence on another individual or group
of individuals by extraordinary means
and includes, as a subset, control of
other forms of animate life.
It also
includes, as a subset, the ability to
control one's own physical mechanisms
beyond the boundaries currently under-
stood in classical psychology and
physiology.
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IV.
Matter control. This category includes
the traditional notion of telekinesis
or psychokinesis as applied to the in-
animate universe.
I have chosen to use these categories rather
than the traditional parapsychological terminol-
ogy because they represent an ascending order of
rarity and complexity, not only in interpreta-
tion but also in the implications they produce
for the social order.
It is not the purpose here to deal exten-
sively with the scientific implications of these
categories. These issues can be discussed far
more capably and succinctly by persons highly
skilled in disciplines such as theoretical phy-
sics, mathematics, neurophysiology and psycho-
logy. I shall touch upon the scientific ques-
tion only briefly by suggesting that the crucial
issue is whether or not these events can be for-
malized within the confines of classical theo-
ries. All would breathe a sigh of relief if this
were found to be true. On the other hand, there
is no compelling reason to believe that our
knowledge of the universe is so complete that in
the short century of modern scientific inquiry
we have completely ferreted out all nature's
secrets.
It is reasonable to hope that categories I,
and II, and some phenomena in category III could
be explained within classical structure, or by
modest extrapolations therefrom. On the other
hand, it is exceedingly difficult to understand
how category IV, consisting of "mind over inani-
mate matter", can be understood without major
reworking and expansion of current concepts
about the fundamental nature of matter and add-
itionally some new insights about the nature of
mind.
It is the author's personal bias that as a
result of the study of category IV events, the
Idealist Model (i.e., that conciousness and
thought represent the fundamental action prin-
ciple of the universe) will be essential for
explaining these events.
(The competing models
are the Materialist Model, in which matter is
the fundamental "stuff" of the Universe and the
Dualist Model in which matter and thought are
separate and distinct realms. )2
However, rather than pre-empt here the
theoretician's job of explaining such events it
will suffice to suggest that, in due course, all
four categories will be established as valid and
will require explanation. Personal observations
to date, convince me that all these categories
are a part of the natural order of an evolving
universe. They will be developed in sufficient
measure during coming generations to exert in-
fluence for the betterment or destruction of our
social system.
To digress, a further discussion of the
four individual categories previously mentioned
will facilitate in understanding them.
Category I is concerned with awareness of
and perceptiveness about other living systems.
This awareness appears to extend the boundar-
ies of conventional notions about space, time
and information flow. An individual with fully
developed perceptual capabilities could, at
will, be aware of the feelings, emotions and
thoughts of other individuals. The limits of
information resolution and the range of subject
matter that can be perceived in this manner have
yet to be explored. However the remote viewing
experiments of Puthoff and Targ3 give some in-
dication that the distance, range and resolu-
tion of information transferable between coop-
erating persons is considerable.
Not only is objective information trans-
ferable from mind to mind, the condition of the
transmitting system is usually discernable. Is
it healthy, is it comfortable, is it honest, or
is it lying? What would it be like to live in
a society where one's inner feelings, state of
health and covert motivations could be perceived
directly?
Duplicity, dishonesty and deception would
no longer be useful characteristics. With
awareness fully developed in a social structure,
individuals would either become totally honest,
with life as an open book or become paranoid
from one's baser motivation being continually
perceived.
The diplomatic, political, military and
promotional games that society currently enjoys,
upon which much institutional interaction is
based, of necessity, must fall apart. The al-
ternative is an "awareness race" in which ad-
versaries engage in the self defeating practice
of keeping score and out maneuvering the other's
deceptions.
This differs from current practice only in
the speed and directness with which it takes
place.
An important element of animate awareness
is deeper self awareness. Achievement of great-
er awareness of other living systems is not as
likely to occur without first or, at least con-
currently achieving greater self awareness.
Being able to discern accurately and honestly
one's own condition, needs, and motivations may,
in the final analysis, be the most important
social advance to evolve from our exploration of
extraordinary mental functioning.
If an individual can "swallow" the events
and implications of Category I, then Category II
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is only a small step forward. This category
directly implies a notion which modern society
is approaching from a different viewpoint. That
notion is: the interconnected and interdependent
relationships of all matter.
Ecological studies are convincing even the
most ironclad pragmatist that man cannot, with
impunity, tinker with the delicate balances in
nature. Recognition of the interdependency of
seemingly unrelated systems suggests that there
is no closed system smaller than the entire uni-
verse. Although many systems appear substan-
tially independent, there always can be found a
small flow of energy or information across the
boundaries which influences the processes of the
system and creates change.
Category II awareness suggests that infor-
mation about the "states of matter" can be di-
rectly perceived by the human organism by, as
yet, unknown processes.
To cite
a practical example, the studies by
Douglas Dean on "Executive E.S.P."4 show a
strong correlation between the decision making
abilities of successful executives and their
ability to precognize a random ordering of num-
bers subsequently selected by a computer. From
this study, it would seem that successfully
guessing the future needs of a company requires
some of the same skills required for success-
fully guessing the outcome of random inanimate
events. For this to happen, some information
flow from the matter and from the future event
must take place so that it can be perceived by
the human organism.
If one develops this notion to its logical
extreme, one arrives at the concept that any in-
formation about the universe and its functions
is directly knowable to a talented and trained
individual who chooses to obtain such informa-
tion.
As has been previously stated, questions
about who can be trained, transfer mechanisms,
limits of resolution and bit rates, for example,
have yet to be answered. However, broadly speak-
ing, the implication of Category II awareness is
but an extension of Category I, namely that the
universe is an "open book" to those who become
trained to read it. Many current ideas and pri-
orities at all levels of social and institution-
al functioning with regard to secrecy, proprie-
tary information, and decision making will, of
necessity, require modification.
One is challenged to ask at this point, "Is
mankind ready for this?"
*
Category I and II awarenesses are essen-
tially concerned with the passive process of
gaining information by direct cognition, direct
perception, intuition, or any number of other
terms which are more or less applicable to
these little understood processes. Both cate-
gories imply vastly expanded awareness functions
available to some, perhaps many humans, through
mechanisms yet to be formally explained. The
foregoing speculations about what one might ex-
pect if large numbers of humanity could develop
these abilities to a high art, represent a de-
duction carried to its limit. The truth is pro-
bably less dramatic and, probably lies short of
the limit, at least in the foreseeable future.
As dramatic as the previous discussion of
passive processes may seem, it pales in compar-
ison to the implication of the active process
of Categories III and IV.
Category III is direct control of animate
systems. Keep in mind, that in today's world,
humans attempt to control the animate universe
through the usual channels of communication,
with appeals to reason, law and self interest.
Where such appeals fail, resort is made to man-
ipulation and coercion. Category III only adds
another tool to our bag of tricks, a tool real-
ized by conciously changing the information flow
of Category I from a passive process of aware-
ness to an active process of projection. All
of the benefits and detriments currently enjoyed
by humanity are accentuated by addition of this
powerful means of direct influence. The oppor-
tunity for beneficial assistance seems great
but the opportunity for coercion and manipula-
tion of the unaware seems even greater.
Perhaps the most important beneficial as-
pect of Category III is the implication of
greater control of the individual's own organ-
ism.
The traditional notion is that humans are
limited in concious control of the self by many
physical and psychological factors. Certainly
studies in biofeedback, meditation, hypnosis and
guided imagery suggest that control can be
greatly extended beyond what has been considered
possible and, perhaps, down to the level of in-
dividual cells in the body. If such techniques
can become well developed, the implication for
self improvement, health, well being, wisdom
and fulfillment are quite profound.
It should go without saying that the proper
training technique for gaining control of Cate-
gory III capabilities is to first learn to con-
trol self and then, cautiously, extend one's
boundaries out toward the rest of the animate
universe. (Nature's wisdom regarding Man will
hopefully prevent any other approach. )
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Category IV is the control of inanimate
matter.
This, of course, is the most provoca-
tive, most rare, most controversial and least
understood of capabilities. The Western world
still does not generally accept this type func-
tioning as a part of reality. However, it is
analogous to the "white crow" problem in logic.
Finding just one of the set proves that the set
exists. Similarly, finding just one bonafide
case of mind over inanimate matter proves that
such control exists. Finding additional indi-
viduals capable of such control poses untold
problems, challenges and implications for the
belief systems that shape our reality. In the
minds of many capable field investigators, the
traditional paradigm has already been shattered.
The practical implications of this are
probably small, since few are likely to develop
such capabilities to a high proficiency. The
profundity of the issue lies in the implications
to our system of thought about the nature of Man,
the Universe and Reality. In spite of the rela-
tive rarity of these events, the question must
be asked, "Could it be that we, each one of us,
every day, by our thoughts are subtly influenc-
ing our environment, our reality, our Universe,
without consciously knowing it, or is this type
control strictly the province of a few rare in-
dividuals who possess this unique capability?"
In closing, the desire in presenting these
ideas was to ask the provocative question, to
illustrate with the extreme example, and to ex-
amine the broad implications of what must be
considered "extraordinary events". It is left
as an exercise for the reader to fill in the
gaps, to ask questions regarding day-to-day im-
plications for such fields as medicine, busi-
ness, politics and education. Such exercises
are illuminating, startling and very much worth
doing. These ideas present significant chal-
lenges to those interested in the progress of
knowledge.
Whatever the thoughts one holds about the
events and the research presented at this ses-
sion, it is important to keep in mind the fol-
lowing facts: 1) the "white crow" exists,
2) the attention devoted to the study of ex-
traordinary human functions is still appalling-
ly little, and 3) Toynbee's quote at the
beginning of the paper can be summed up:
"Where do we go from here?"
References
1. Toynbee, Arnold J. , - "Is America Neglect-
ing Her Creative Minority?"
Accent on Talent.,
Vol. II, January 1968.
2. Mitchell, Edgar D., et al., Psychic Explo-
ration: A Challenge for Science., G.P. Putnam's
Sons, 1974.
3. Puthoff, Harold and Targ, Russell, - Pro-
ceedings of IEEE. , March 1976.
4. Dean, Douglas E. and Mihalsky, John, Execu-
tive ESP., Prentice Hall, 1974.
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DIRECT PERCEPTION OF REMOTE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS
Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ
Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, California 94025
ABSTRACT
For the past five years we have been in-
vestigating aspects of human perception that
appear to fall outside the range of well-under-
stood perceptual/processing capabilities. Of
particular interest is a human information-
accessing capability that we call "remote sens-
ing." This phenomenon pertains to the ability
of certain individuals to access and describe,
by means of mental processes, information
sources blocked from ordinary perception (for
example by distance or shielding) and believed
to be secure against such access. In particu-
lar, the phenomenon we have investigated most
extensively is the ability of a subject to view
remote geographical locations up to several
thousand km distant from his physical location
given only a known person on whom to target.
1-3
We have recently carried out coast-to-coast ex-
periments using a computer network to interface
with individuals whose remote perceptual abili-
ties have been developed sufficiently to allow
them to describe -- often in great detail -- geo-
graphical or technical material such as build-
ings, roads, and natural formations.
Our accumulated data indicate that both
specially selected and unselected persons can
be assisted in developing remote perceptual
abilities up to a level of useful information
transfer. Further, the extent of physical dis-
tance separating the subject from the target
site up to transcontinental distances does not
appear to significantly affect the accuracy of
the perception.
INTRODUCTION
In over 70 laboratory experiments that now
include work with more than a dozen subjects,
we have investigated an often-reported human
perceptual ability that has heretofore not been
widely investigated in the laboratory. This
ability, brought to our attention by a subject,
Mr. Ingo Swann, we term "remote sensing."
It
is an ability by which human subjects perceive,
and describe by word and drawing, distant
scenes and activities blocked from ordinary
perception. In these experiments, subjects
have been able to describe with equal accuracy
scenes at both local sites (that is, within a
few miles) and those at transcontinental dis-
tances.
As observed in the laboratory, the basic
phenomenon appears to cover a range of subjec-
tive experiences variously referred to in the
literature as autoscopy (in the medical liter-
ature) ; exteriorization or disassociation
(psychological literature); simple clairvoy-
ance, traveling clairvoyance, or out-of-body
experience (parapsychological literature) ; or
astral projection (occult literature). We
choose the term "remote sensing" as a neutral
descriptive term free from prior associations
and bias as to mechanisms.
The need for a supportive setting to over-
come prevailing societal prejudices against
such remote sensing has been provided within
the confines of the Electronics and Bioengi-
neering Laboratory and the Radio Physics Lab-
oratory at Stanford Research Institute (SRI).
Here, throughout our research spanning a five-
year period, we have worked with new and un-
trained subjects so as to avoid reliance on the
availability of a very limited number of spe-
cial subjects. Remote perceptual abilities in
several individuals have now been developed
sufficiently to allow them to describe -- often
in considerable detail -- geographical or tech-
nical material such as buildings, roads, and
real-time activities.
Since the initial publication of our in-
vestigations of this remarkable phenomenon,
1,2
four successful replication experiments have
been performed in other laboratories across the
country . 4-7
In addition, we have learned
through private communications of several un-
published studies of other successful experi-
ments in paranormal functioning of this type.
In this paper we describe the experimental
protocol used to carry out the research and the
formal judging procedure used to quantify the
results. In addition, we detail recent experi-
ments in coast-to-coast remote viewing that
have yielded results similar to those obtained
in the initial experiments using relatively
local target sites. Finally, as a step toward
achieving our research aim of using the experi-
mental data base to deduce relevant physical
principles and laws governing paranormal or psi
functioning, we examine some physical models
potentially applicable to remote perception.
EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH
Description of the Protocol (Local Targets)
The general protocol is to closet a sub-
ject with an experimenter at SRI and at a pre-
arranged time to obtain from the subject a de-
scription of an undisclosed, remote site being
visited by a target team. In each of the ex-
periments, there is an SRI experimenter
on the target demarcation team at the remote
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AVE.
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CONCRETE BLOCK
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SUN L
(a)
City map of target location
(b)
Drawing by Price
FIGURE 1
SWIMMING POOL COMPLEX AS REMOTE VIEWING TARGET
location that is chosen in a double-blind
fashion outlined below.
An outbound experimenter is assigned a
target location by an independent experimenter
who has generated a list of targets located
within a 30-minute driving time from SRI, and
who accesses this list by a randomization pro-
cedure. The target pool consists of more than
100 target locations chosen from a target-rich
environment.
The target location selected is
kept blind to both the subject and experimenter
closeted at SRI.
In detail: To begin the experiment, a sub-
ject is closeted with an experimenter at SRI to
wait 30 minutes before beginning a narrative
description of an undisclosed remote location
that will be the target for the experiment. A
second experimenter, accompanied by other mem-
bers of a target demarcation team, then obtains
sealed traveling orders from a monitor who has
previously prepared and randomized a set of
such orders.
After leaving SRI by automobile,
the target demarcation team opens the traveling
orders and proceeds directly to the target
without any communication with the subject or
experimenter remaining at SRI. The experiment-
er remaining with the subject in the SRI labo-
ratory is kept ignorant of both the particular
target and the target pool so as to eliminate
the possibility of cueing (overt or subliminal)
and to allow him freedom in questioning the sub-
ject for clarification of his descriptions, The
target demarcation team remains at the target
site for a prearranged 15-minute period follow-
ing the 30 minutes alloted for travel. During
the observation period, the experimenter in the
lab tape-records the subject's remote viewing
impressions of the target site and collects any
drawings made by the subject. After the target
demarcation team returns to SRI, the impressions
obtained from the subject are compared with the
actual observations of the team. Finally,
following the experiment, the subject is taken
to the site so that he may obtain direct
feedback.
Initial Experimental Series with a Subject
Experienced in Remote Viewing
Our first subject in a formal series of
experiments to investigate the remote viewing
function was Mr. Pat Price, a former California
police commissioner and city councilman, who
participated in nine experiments. Mr. Price
came to our experiments with a reported history
of spontaneous remote viewing experiences. In
general, Price's ability in our experiments to
describe correctly buildings, docks, roads,
gardens, and the like, including structural
materials, color, ambience, and activity -- some-
times in great detail -- indicated the functioning
of a remote perceptual ability. A Hoover Tower
target, for example, was recognized and cor-
rectly named. Nonetheless, Price's descriptions
generally contained inaccuracies as well as cor-
rect statements. A typical example is indicated
by his drawing shown in Figure 1 in which he
correctly described a park-like area containing
two pools of water: one rectangular, 60 X 89
ft (actual dimensions 75 X 100 ft); the other
circular, diameter 120 ft (actual diameter 110
ft). As can be seen from his drawing, he also
included some elements, such as the tanks shown
in the upper right, that are not present at the
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target site. We also note an apparent left-
right reversal, often observed in paranormal
perception experiments.
Further, he incorrectly indicated the
function of the site as water purification
rather than recreational swimming. We often
observe essentially correct descriptions of
basic elements and patterns coupled with incom-
plete or erroneous analysis of function. This
theme emerged as a thread which continued
throughout our work and eventually led to a
breakthrough with regard to an understanding of
the interrelationship between paranormal per-
ception and cerebral functioning, namely:
that
paranormal functioning may involve specializa-
tion characteristic of the brain's right hemi-
sphere, which predominates in spatial and other
holistic processing, in contrast to the left
hemisphere which predominates in verbal and
8-10
other analytical functioning.
Judging of Results
To obtain a numerical evaluation of the
accuracy of the remote viewing experiment, the
experimental results were subjected to indepen-
dent judging on a blind basis by an SRI research
analyst not otherwise associated with the re-
search. Price's response packets, which con-
tained the nine typed, unedited transcripts of
the tape-recorded narratives and associated
drawings, were unlabeled and presented in ran-
dom order. Working alone, the analyst visited
each target location in turn and in a blind
fashion rated Price's descriptions on a scale 1
to 9 (best to worst match). The statistic of
interest is the sum of ranks assigned to the
target-associated transcripts, lower values
indicating better matches. For nine targets,
the sum of ranks could range from nine (for
perfect matching) to eighty-one. The technique
for calculating the probability that a given sum
of ranks s or less will occur by chance is given
in Reference 2. The results of the judging,
shown in Table 1, included seven direct hits out
of the nine. The overall result was statisti-
cally significant at p = 2.9 X 10 . Table 1
also indicates the various types of targets
used in this series. Further, in experiments
3, 4, and 6-9, the subject was secured in a
double-walled copper screen Faraday cage, which
provides 120-dB attenuation for plane-wave
radio-frequency radiation over the range of 15
kHz to 1 GHz. The results of rank-order
judging indicate that the use of such shielding
does not prevent high-quality descriptions from
being obtained.
Replication Series with a Subject Inexperienced
in Remote Viewing
Having completed this initial series of
experiments with Price, we concluded that
Table 1
DISTRIBUTION OF RANKINGS ASSIGNED TO
TRANSCRIPTS ASSOCIATED WITH EACH TARGET
LOCATION FOR EXPERIENCED SUBJECT PRICE
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
Hoover Tower, Stanford
3.4
1
Baylands Nature
Preserve, Palo Alto
6.4
1
Radio telescope,
Portola Valley
6.4
1
Marina, Redwood City
6.8
1
Bridge toll plaza,
Fremont
14.5
6
Drive-in theatre,
Palo Alto
5.1
1
Arts and Crafts Plaza,
Menlo Park
1.9
1
Catholic Church,
Portola Valley
8.5
3
Swimming pool complex,
Palo Alto
3,4
1
Total sum of ranks
16
(p=2.9x10-5)
remote viewing was both a real and a robust
phenomenon.
Our next task was to try to find
out how widely distributed the ability was in
the general population. We began with the
following replication experiment.
The subject for this experiment was Mrs.
Hella Hammid, a gifted professional photogra-
pher. She was selected for this series on the
basis of her good performance as a percipient
in an earlier EEG experiment designed to measure
physiological response to remote strobelight
stimuli, a hypothesized screening procedure for
remote viewing. Outside of that interaction,
she had had no previous experience with apparent
paranormal functioning.
At the time we began working with
Mrs. Hammid, she had no strong feelings about
the likelihood of her ability to succeed in this
task. This was in contrast to both Ingo Swann,
who suggested these experiments and who had
come to our laboratory fresh from an apparently
successful series of similar experiments with
Dr. Karlis Osis at the American Society for
Psychical Research (ASPR) in New York11 and
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Pedestrian Overpass Target
1
Light
CCCC
FIGURE 2
SUBJECT HAMMID DRAWING, DESCRIBED AS "SOME KIND OF DIAGONAL TROUGH
UP IN THE AIR"
Pat Price, the first subject in our formal
Series of experiments, who felt that he used his
remote viewing ability in his everyday life.
In working with an inexperienced subject,
we must take into account the fact that many
people are influenced to a large degree by their
environment and by public scrutiny when it comes
to activities generally considered to be impos-
sible. A reluctance to cope with negative feed-
back from society often inhibits individuals
from exploring a potential for paranormal per-
ception. Therefore, in addition to maintaining
scientific rigor, one of our primary tasks as
researchers is to provide an environment that
lends protective support for a subject to pur-
sue such exploration. With a new subject, we
also stress the nonuniqueness of the ability
because our experience indicates that paranor-
mal functioning is a latent ability that all
subjects can demonstrate to some degree.
We observed in working with Price that in
remote viewing structure and form tended to be
correct even when interpretation was incorrect.
We therefore found it an advantage that
Mrs. Hammid's artistic background enabled her
to draw and describe visual images that she
could not identify in any cognitive or analytic
sense. When the target demarcation team went
to a pedestrian overpass target location, for
example, the subject said that she saw "a kind
of diagonal trough up in the air," which she
indicated in the upper part of her drawing in
Figure 2. She further explained that "If you
stand where they are standing you will see
something like this," indicating the nested
squares at the bottom of Figure 2. As can be
seen from the photograph of the target location
as shown in Figure 2, a judge standing where she
indicated would have a view closely resembling
what she had drawn. We emphasize, however, that
judges did not have access to our photographs of
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the site, used here for illustrative purposes
only; rather, they proceeded to each of the tar-
get locations according to a list.
As in the original series with Price, the
results of this nine-experiment series were sub-
mitted for independent judging on a blind basis
by an SRI research analyst not otherwise asso-
ciated with the research. According to the
judging procedure previously outlined in the
section, "Judging of Results," the judge ranked
each target location on a scale of 1 to 9 (best
to worst match) on the basis of the narratives
and drawings submitted by the subject. The sum
of ranks assigned to the target-associated
transcripts was statistically significant at
p = 1.8 X 10-6. This included five direct hits
and four second ranks as shown in Table 2 along
with the locations of the nine experiments in
this set.
Table 2
DISTRIBUTION OF RANKINGS ASSIGNED TO
TRANSCRIPTS ASSOCIATED WITH EACH TARGET
LOCATION FOR LEARNER SUBJECT HAMMID
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
Methodist Church,
Palo Alto
1.9
1
Ness Auditorium,
Menlo Park
0.2
1
Merry-go-round,
Palo Alto
3.4
1
Parking garage,
Mountain View
8.1
2
SRI International
Courtyard, Menlo Park
0.2
1
Bicycle shed,
Menlo Park
0.1
2
Railroad trestle
bridge, Palo Alto
1.3
2
Pumpkin patch,
Menlo Park
1.3
1
Pedestrian overpass,
Palo Alto
5.0
2
Total sum of ranks
13
(p=1.8×10-6)
In comparing the results of the Hammid and
Price experiments, we observe a difference in
the subjects' styles that evidently affected the
pattern of results. The descriptions from Price
were usually more detailed than those of Hammid
and thus led to more first-place matches -- that
is, direct hits in the rank order judging. At
the same time, his striving for detail produced
erroneous analytical interpretations that re-
sulted in two distinct mismatches. On the
other hand, the more restrained narratives of
Mrs. Hammid resulted in fewer first-place
matches, but none fell below second place.
Such
a comparison of results does not indicate that
one subject necessarily has more paranormal per-
ception than the other, but rather shows the
effects in this type of judging procedure due to
a difference in style.
Experiments with Unselected Subjects
After more than a year of following the
experimental protocol described above and ob-
serving that even inexperienced subjects ob-
tained results better than expected, we began a
series of experiments to explore further
whether individuals other than so-called "psy-
chics" could demonstrate the remote viewing
ability. To test this idea, we initiated an
extensive series of experiments using unselect-
ed subjects and local targets in the Bay Area.
We had no particular reason to believe that
these additional subjects possessed paranormal
perceptual ability.
These experiments served a twofold pur-
pose. First they provided an opportunity to
obtain data that indicate the level of profi-
ciency that can be expected from unselected
volunteers. Second, they served to dispel con-
cerns about the possibility of deception. For
example, many scientists from the government
and elsewhere have visited our laboratory to
decide whether their particular departments
should be concerned with paranormal research.
Their requests generally focus on a desire to
"see something psychic," and we had been will-
ing to demonstrate the remote viewing protocol
with one of our subjects. However, when an
individual observes a successful experiment
demonstrated with another person as subject, it
inevitably occurs to him that perhaps chicanery
is somehow involved. We have found that the
most effective way to settle this issue is to
have the doubter become the subject, thereby
providing him with personal experience as a
basis for evaluating our experimental protocols
and reported results. Consequently, we have
discontinued demonstration experiments. In-
stead, we ask the visitor to become a subject
so that he can personally evaluate what he ex-
periences and sees. After the experiment, he
is then taken to the target site where he can
determine firsthand if it corresponds to what
he has visualized during the experiment. We
have found that the actual experience as a sub-
ject of successful remote viewing is by far
more instructive than observation of what some-
one else has done. The following results
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76
5MAY
11
2
HOWWE
-
7
5Ssime
-7 mue Bld
wall
Largo
Begule Casa?
Street
(EMPORIUM)
TYPES
-17
windows
Patic
polen?)
Paul
Lut (intern
1
70
Elevata.
Porch?
7
/
530920
53092
A
SA-5309-2R
FIGURE 3
STANFORD UNIVERSITY, INNER QUADRANGLE - TARGET; SKETCHES PRODUCED BY
SUBJECT INEXPERIENCED AT REMOTE VIEWING
obtained with the last two visitors who agreed
to act as subjects provide specific examples.
The first was an electrical engineer who
was interested in evaluating our work. We ex-
plained to him that the only demonstration we
were prepared to offer was the experience that
he himself might have in being a remote viewing
subject.
His first target location (determined by
the standard random protocol) turned out to be
a locale known as the Baylands Nature Preserve.
Our visitor described and drew a long wooden
walkway and indicated the presence of extensive
gardens, an accurate depiction of the target
site. However, he also described seeing a
building that is not at the target site. This
sort of superposition of erroneous imagery on
otherwise accurate descriptions is a common
occurrence and is the principal source of noise
to be overcome if remote viewing is to become a
useful tool.
The next day we carried out a second ex-
periment with this visitor. This time the ran-
domly-determined target was the inner quadrangle
at Stanford University. Our subject described a
courtyard and made the two drawings shown in
Figure 3. Almost every element of his drawings
corresponds to the actual arrangement at the
location of the remote experimenters. These re-
sponses are among the most accurate and detailed
that we have ever seen. This target had never
been used before, and the visitor indicated that
he had never been to the Stanford Campus before
nor had he ever seen a photograph of this
location.
A second result, typical of what we have
come to expect from the remote viewing protocol,
was obtained with our most recent visitor/volun-
teer, a physics professor who was skeptical of
our reported results. This man had been lectur-
ing on the West Coast and came to SRI to learn
firsthand of our research. In addition to hear-
ing our description of the protocol, he was also
invited to participate as the subject in an ex-
periment so that he could personally evaluate
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the experimental aspects of the remote viewing
channel.
The target chosen by random protocol was
White Plaza at Stanford University, the second
time in four years that this particular site
came up for experimental use. The subject gave
an excellent description of the plaza and the
surrounding buildings and produced the drawing
shown in Figure 4. In addition, he also cor-
rectly described the motion of the outbound ex-
perimenter who circled the fountain in a clock-
wise direction as shown in the subject's
drawing.
The results obtained with these two men are
not isolated examples selected from many unsuc-
cessful trials. Rather, they are simply the
most recent examples of visitor first-time
cases, and are typical of what we have come to
expect from any serious attempt at remote
viewing.
LONG-DISTANCE EXPERIMENTS WITH TELECONFERENCING
After establishing a data base of over 50
experiments with local targets (sites within a
few miles), we undertook an experimental series
designed to determine whether an increase in
subject-target separation to transcontinental
distances would degrade the quality or accuracy
of perception. As a secondary goal, we were
interested in the real-time data rate; e.g., de-
termining the extent to which a remote viewing
subject can track the real-time activities and
movements of a known individual in a distant
city. The only communication between the out-
bound experimenter (e.g., in New York City) and
a subject in the SRI Laboratory (Menlo Park,
California) was by means of the ARPA computer
net. Access to the computer by the traveling
experimenter was by means of a portable terminal
carried from point to point.
Following are the results obtained in this
series, which consists of five experiments to
date.
New York-California Experiments
The protocol for this experiment allowed
the subject at SRI in California and the experi-
menter in New York City to communicate via the
conversational TALK mode available on the ARPA
computer net. The subject and the experimenter
at SRI agreed (via computer teleconferencing) to
begin an experiment one-half hour later. The
purpose of the computer in this experiment was
to provide time- and date-stamped permanent
records of all communications between the vari-
ous parties involved in the experiment. These
data can be read in real time by any authorized
person entering the SRI-AI Tenex (MSG) system.
Remove Viewing at White Plaza Stanford University
-
1
1
--
QUAD?
1
FIGURE 4
FIRST EXPERIMENT WITH VISITING
PHYSICS PROFESSOR:
"THERE ARE
WIDE STEPS RUNNING THE ENTIRE
WIDTH OF THE STRUCTURE .... I SEE
AN OVAL POOL IN FRONT OF THE
STEPS AS I MOVE BACK .... AND
THERE COULD BE A SMALL
STRUCTURE IN THE MIDDLE OF IT
LIKE A CROSS-SHAPED OBJECT.
....
ON THE GROUND I STILL SEE SOME
KIND OF QUADRILATERAL."
After logging off the computer, the out-
bound experimenter would use a random number
generator to determine which of six locations
in New York City would constitute the target to
be visited in this experiment. Neither the sub-
ject nor the experimenter at SRI knew the con-
tents of the target list that was compiled just
before the experiment. Having selected a target
location by the random protocol, the experiment-
er would proceed directly to the site and remain
there for fifteen minutes.
One-half hour after breaking computer
links, the subject would begin to type impres-
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sions into a special computer file established
for this purpose.
When the New York City experimenter re-
turned to his hotel from his target site, he
would make use of a limited-access file to enter
his description of the place he actually visit-
ed. He would then return to the executive level
of the computer, and await the appearance of the
SRI experimenters who could then (and only then)
link terminals. At that time both files would
be printed out on both terminals and the subject
and the experimenter would each learn what the
other had written.
Two subjects, both in California, partici-
pated simultaneously in this experiment with
the first of two New York City targets. The
first of the two New York City targets was
Grant's Tomb. Both subjects independently pro-
vided computer-stored records of their impres-
sions, and one made the sketch shown in Fig-
ure 5. (The five possible targets in addition
to Grant's Tomb were a railroad bridge, the 20-
story New York University law library, the
fountain in Washington Square Park, the Colum-
bia University subway station, and the 72nd
Street boat basin.
The targets were chosen to
be dissimilar, and thus differentiable, by po-
.
tential judges. )
The first subject, an SRI systems analyst,
said in his opening paragraph:
"Outdoors, large
open area, standing on and then off asphalt
(rough material), dark for a path. A white
building, like a ticket booth. Wooden struc-
ture, is white in color, and has an arched look
about it. There is a large shade tree close to
Russ (outbound experimenter) ."
The second subject, a medical student
closeted in a separate SRI location, began with:
"I thought of a high place with a view. I saw a
tree on your left. A brick plaza seemed to be
in front of a building you were entering.
I
could not clearly identify the activity. A
restaurant? A museum? A bookstore? You had
coins in the palm of your hand, maybe giving
some to Nicky (son of outbound experimenter)."
The coins were in fact used to purchase the
postcard from which Figure 5 was made, and they
were given to
the experimenter's son who made
the purchase.
Both subjects then went on for
an additional
paragraph to describe details of
the activities
they imagined to be going on in-
side the building they saw, details that were
partly correct, partly incorrect.
In the second experiment, the target, again
chosen by random protocol, was the fountain in
Washington Square Park. One subject partici-
pated. She produced an exceptionally accurate
transcript. The photos and the subject's draw-
ing of the fountain are shown in Figure 6. The
Grant's Tomb Target in New York City
FRONT VIEW
:
-
FIGURE 5
COAST-TO-COAST REMOTE VIEWING
EXPERIMENT. SUBJECT DESCRIBED:
"OUTDOORS, LARGE OPEN AREA ....
SHADE TREES .... WHITE BUILDING
WITH ARCHES."
subject began her printout with the following:
"The first image I got at about the first minute
was of a cement depression -- as if a dry fountain
with a cement post in the center or inside.
There seemed to be pigeons off to the right,
flying around the surface out of the depres-
sion . . . At one point I thought you were open-
ing a cellophane bag .
=
(The experimenter
had in fact bought ice cream during the experi-
mental period.) "There was also a rectangular
wooden frame, a window frame, but I wasn't sure
if it was on a building, or a similar structure
with a different purpose." (A possible corre-
lation from a functional viewpoint to the Wash-
ington Square Arch through which the outbound
experimenters viewed the fountain toward the end
of the experimental period.) "All in all I
11
( In-
thought you were at Riverside Park ..
.
correct analysis.) An SRI scientist, familiar
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Subject's Perception was of a "Cement Depression -
as if a Dry Fountain - with a Cement Post in the
Center or Inside."
Pigens
1st-
tiny Fortin
on stadin
FIGURE 6
COAST-TO-COAST REMOTE VIEWING EXPERIMENT WITH TARGET AT WASHINGTON
SQUARE IN NEW YORK CITY
with the New York City area but blind to the
target, did, however, identify the target cor-
rectly on reading the twenty lines of printout
as it emerged from the computer terminal.
As an example of the style of narrative
generated by a subject during a computer tele-
conferencing experiment, we include the entire
unedited computer-logged text of the Washington
Square experiment below (Figure 7).
These teleconferencing experiments provide
an elegant demonstration of the utility of the
teleconferencing process as a secure data re-
cording system useful in real-time monitoring of
long-distance remote viewing experiments.
In a more detailed tape recording she made
after the experiment, but before any feedback,
she described "cement steps going into the de-
pression, like a stadium, and the rounded edge
of the top of the depression as you go up to
ground level." These descriptions not only are
correct but also show remarkable detail.
New York-Ohio
A third long-distance remote viewing experi-
ment was carried out under the control of an
independent, skeptical scientist. In this case,
both SRI experimenters visiting in Ohio agreed
to take part in a remote viewing experiment in
which our host would select the target.
Under the observation of our challenger, we
telephoned one of our subjects, Hella Hammid, in
New York City and obtained her agreement to
participate in a long-distance remote viewing
experiment. She was told only that we were
located somewhere between New York City and our
California laboratory and that shortly we would
be taken to a target that we would like her to
describe. The time for the experiment was set
for 2:00 PM EDT. We also agreed to call her
again at 3:00 PM EDT to obtain her impressions
and to give her our feedback as to the actual
target.
The scientist took us directly to Spring-
field, Ohio, to the Ohio Caverns that he had
chosen as the target location (see Figure 8).
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TYPE (MESSAGE SEQUENCE) 6
(MSG. # 6, 1730 CHARS)
DATE: 6 JUL 1976 1354-PDT
FROM: TARG
SUBJECT: SUSANS REPORT PART 2 NYC EXP
THE FIRST IMAGE I GOT AT ABOUT THE FIRST MINUTE WAS OF A CEMENT
DEPRESSION - AS IF A DRY FOUNRTAIN - WITH A CEMENT POST IN THE
CENTER OR INSIDE . THERE SEEMED TO BE PIGEONS OFF TO THE RIGHT,
FLYING AROUNDTHE SURFACE OUT OF THE DEPRESSION.
THEN I SAW AS
IF IFIF IN THE DISTANCE A REAL" STADIUM WITH GRASS IN THE
CENTER AND PERHAPS STADIUM LIGHTS.
OTHER IMAGES WERE AROW
OF HOUSES/APICKET FENCE - SOME VERTICAL UNITS WITH JAGGED TOPS.
THEN A FLUTED/GROOVED VERTICAL COLUMN, BUT I COULDN'T SENSE WAHT
IT WAS RELATED TO. AGAIN YOU WERE IN A DEPRESSED AREA WITH
CEMENT SIDES, LOOKING OUT ONTO THE SURFACE OUTSIDE. THE CEMENT
SIDES ARE NOT STRAIGHT, BUT SLOPING, ALMOST S-SHAPRD. ALSO A
CLEAR FEELING OF THE HEAVY, WORN METAL BAR ON THE TOP OF
TYPICAL NYC OR ANYCITY FENCES. THERE DIDN'T SEEM TO BE ANYTHING
REALLY SPECIAL INSIDE, JUST A SEPARATION BETWEEN TEWD TWO
SIMILAR AREAS. AT ONE POINT, I THOUGHT YOU WERE OPENING A
CELLOPHANE BAG AND LATER I SENSED YOU FEEDING POPCORN - TO
PIGEONS.
THERE WAS ALSO A RECTANGULAR WOODEN FRAME, A WINDOW
FRAME, BUT I WASN'T SURE IF IT WAS ON A BUILDING, OR A
SIMILAR STRUCTURE WITH A DIFFERENT PURPOSE. ALL IN ALL: I THOUGHT
YOU WERE IN RIVERSIDE PARK NEAR A TRACK AND PLAY AREA,
OCCASIONALLY LOOKING UP AT THE "ROCK AND LEAF" CLIFFS LEADING
UP TO THE DRIVE. AFTER I HAD THOUGHT THAT AND FIT IT IN T
WITH THE IMAGES RECEIVED SO FAR, IT KIND OF STUCK, AND I
POSSIBLY GENERATED MORE PARK SCENES. THE STADIUM /FOUN
TAIN IMAGES WERE THE FIRST AND THUS THE LEAST BIASED AS TO
PARK MEMORIES. (I SURE DO LIKR THE TLELETYPE. IT CAN BECOME
AN OBSESSIVE PASTIME, I SEE).
THAT WAS MESSAGE 6
FIGURE 7
COMPUTER FILE PRINTOUT. CALIFORNIA-NEW YORK LONG
DISTANCE REMOTE VIEWING.
TARGET:
WASHINGTON
SQUARE (NYC).
We entered the grounds through an entrance arch,
that opens onto an enormous expanse of lawn,
perhaps twenty acres. The caves are located at
a depth of ~ 150 ft and are entered through a
small building having a long flight of steep
stairs. Once underground, we walked through a
maze of rock-lined tunnels that lead eventually
into a series of rooms lined with calcite sta-
lagtites and stalagmites, frosty white and
beige crystals formed like icicles. The entire
cavern is illuminated by small electric light
bulbs attached to the walls. After a forty-five
minute walk, we exited the caves through a large
metal door giving access to a square cross-
sectional shaft with stairs leading to the
surface.
Following the experimental period, the
scientist observer called the subject in New
York, forty-five minutes after we left the
caves. The opening statements of the subject's
transcript as dictated over the phone and posted
to the SRI experimenters is as follows:
FIGURE 8
OHIO CAVES: DESCRIBED BY
SUBJECT IN NEW YORK AS,
"UNDERGROUND CAVES OR MINES ....
DEEP SHAFTS .... DARKER, COOL,
MOIST EARTH-SMELLING PASSAGES."
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"1:50 PM before starting --
Flat semi-industrial countryside with
mountain range in background and some-
thing to do with underground caves or
mines or deep shafts -- half man made,
half natural -- some electric humming
going on -- throbbing, inner throbbing.
Nuclear or some very far out and
possibly secret installation -- corridor --
mazes of them -- whole underground city
almost -- Don't like it at all -- long for
outdoors and nature. 2:00 PM --
(Experimenters) R and H walking along
sunny road -- entering into arbor-like
shaft -- again looks like man helped
nature -- vines (wisteria) growing in
arch at entrance like to a wine
cellar -- leading into underground world.
Darker earth-smelling cool moist
passage with something grey and of
interest on left of them -- musty --
sudden change to bank of elevators -- a
very man-made steel wall -- and shaft-
like inverted silo going deep below
earth -- brightly lit .
She concludes with
"I see a lot of gold and metal and
silver-gold glow all over -- not much
sound -- very silent factory -- scary -- few
people -- very special."
As is often the case, one observes that the
basic gestalt of the target site is cognized
and even experienced, while specifics are mis-
interpreted.
New Orleans-California
Two experiments carried out between New
Orleans and Menlo Park, CA, constitute the
latest members of the long-distance series, five
experiments of which have been completed to date
(all reported here). These were carried out
with the two subjects who had participated in
the New York-California experiments.
During an extensive cross-country trip, we
arranged to conduct two experiments between New
Orleans and Menlo Park, CA, one each way. The
Menlo Park subject was not told in what city the
outbound experimenter was located. He knew only
that the outbound experimenter was in the cen-
tral time zone.
For the first experiment (subject in Menlo
Park) it was agreed that at 12:00 noon CST on a
particular day, the outbound experimenter would
choose a target location in his city by random
protocol and remain there for the required fif-
teen minutes. During this time, the subject in
Menlo Park would tape-record his impressions and
make any drawings that seemed appropriate. (The
ARPA net was not available because of computer
net malfunction.)
The target chosen by randomized entry into
a New Orleans guide book list was the Louisiana
Superdome. The outbound experimenter tape-
recorded the following description as he looked
at the building. "It is a bright sunshine day.
In front of me is a huge silvery building with a
white dome gleaming in the sun. It is a circu-
lar building with metal sides. It looks like
nothing so much as a flying saucer. The target
is in fact the 80,000-seat Louisiana Superdome
stadium."
The subject in Menlo Park described the
target as "a large circular building with a
white dome." He also expressed feelings of
wanting to reject what he saw because the dome
looked to him "like a flying saucer in the
middle of a city." Some appreciation for this
perception can be obtained from Figure 9 in
which the target is shown, together with the
sketches that the subject made.
The most recent experiment in this series
involved a subject in New Orleans viewing activ-
ities of a group of three people known to her,
at a location in the Palo Alto/Menlo Park area
2000 miles away. Her principal impression was
of a "overhang of a building over their heads .
. . also a round gold rim around a sunken de-
pression." The target, a bank building is shown
in Figure 10. Principal features of the target
include a dramatic building overhang, and a
rectangular concrete depression with a fountain
in which the water comes out of a circular gold
rim. The subject also reported "some kind of
fake china flowers mushrooming out of the de-
pression." There were four orange lamps mount-
ed on the gold rim. Finally, she reported
"there was a projectile coming toward David (one
of the outbound experimenters). Like a ball or
frisbee, as if Elizabeth (another experimenter)
has tossed him a ball." Actually the experi-
menters had found a paper airplane lying on the
ground and had thrown it back and forth for
some period of time.
In fact, the photo of the
site taken at the time of the experiment shows
the airplane between them. This is one of the
few times that a remote viewing subject has per-
ceived rapid motion at the target site.
The results obtained to date in the long-
distance remote viewing series appear to be
roughly of the same caliber as those obtained in
local remote viewing experiments. The descrip-
tions not only contain correct information
beyond that expected by chance, but also show
remarkable detail and resolution. Although ex-
tensive data must be taken before a final con-
clusion can be reached, we are led to conclude
at this point that there is little, if any, de-
gradation in quality of perception as the sub-
ject-target distance is increased from a few
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50
done
Ar
Cement
quan
1
coment
OUTSIDE
grass
Russ.
at
FRONT
3
Walls. with glass
display Cases .
FIGURE 9
LONG DISTANCE REMOTE VIEWING EXPERIMENT - SRI,
MENLO PARK, TO LOUISIANA SUPERDOME. SUBJECT
DESCRIBED LARGE CIRCULAR BUILDING WITH A WHITE
DOME. 31 OCTOBER 1976.
miles to transcontinental distances. The re-
sults obtained on the basis of viewing a New
York site from SRI in Menlo Park, California,
three thousand miles away, for example, are
similar to those obtained in local remote view-
ing experiments. Any theory of paranormal func-
tioning put forward at this time should take
this insensitivity to distance into account.
PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICS
POTENTIALLY APPLICABLE TO PSI PHENOMENA
One of the common objections to the exis-
tence of so-called paranormal functioning is
that it would seem to be in conflict with the
laws of physics. Our investigations, however,
have led us to the contrary view that the data
can in all probability be accounted for either
within the framework of physics as presently
understood, or within the framework of extra-
polations that have been proposed to account for
other (non-psychic) data. In fact, we antici-
pate that not only can we use physical princi-
ples to help us understand psi phenomena, but
the psi data base will probably shed light on
some of the current problems in physics, e.g.,
with regard to the foundations of quantum
theory, and for geometrical models of space-
time events such as exist in relativity theory.
In this section we outline how we are making use
of our experimental data base to deduce the
relevant physical principles and laws that
govern psi functioning.
In addition to attempting to determine
whether psi phenomena are generally compatible
with the laws and content of physics as pres-
ently codified, we are also examining the limits
of specific physical theories in modeling psi
phenomena. The areas of physics we have under
consideration as potentially relevant to model-
ing psi phenomena include:
the possibility that
remote viewing is mediated by extremely low-
frequency (ELF) electromagnetic waves;
12-17
the
possible significance for remote viewing of
Bell's theorem18
and the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen
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Circular Fountain in
Concrete Depression
5
FIGURE 10
REMOTE VIEWING EXPERIMENT - NEW ORLEANS TO PALO ALTO, 30 OCTOBER 1976.
SUBJECT DESCRIBED:
"THE OVERHANG OF A BUILDING OVER THEIR HEADS," ALSO
"A ROUND GOLD RIM AROUND A SUNKEN DEPRESSION" .... "IN THE SURFACE OF
THE DEPRESSION THERE IS SOME KIND OF FAKE CHINA FLOWERS. IT'S LIKE A
BONSAI TREE MUSHROOMING OUT OF THE SURFACE." LATER IN THE TRANSCRIPT
SHE SAID "THERE WAS A PROJECTILE COMING TOWARD DAVE. SOME KIND OF A
PROJECTILE, LIKE A BALL OR FRISBEE. AS IF ELIZABETH TOSSED HIM A BALL."
(IT WAS A PAPER AIRPLANE.)
(EPR) paradox19 of quantum theory which empha-
size that "no theory of reality compatible with
quantum theory can require spatially separated
events to be independent, "20 but must permit
interconnectedness of distant events in a manner
that is contrary to ordinary experience21-22
(experimentally confirmed at the microscopic
level),
23-24
the proper interpretation of the
effect of an observer (consciousness) on experi-
mental measurement,
25-26
of possible signifi-
cance in psychokinesis; the possibility that the
causality-reversing tachyon-' or advanced-po-
tential solutions of physics may play a role in
precognition;
28-30 the potential relevance (for
a general theory of psi phenomena) of theories
based on geometries which provide for a more
extended structure of the space-time metric.
*
To indicate the tenor of our approach, let us
consider briefly two examples from this list.
A reasonable first hypothesis is that re-
mote viewing is mediated by extremely low-
frequency (ELF) electromagnetic waves, a hypoth-
esis that does not seem to be ruled out by any
obvious physical or biological facts.
*
We wish to acknowledge the technical contri-
butions of Elizabeth A. Rauscher, a consultant
to SRI on leave from Lawrence Berkeley Labora-
tory, who has done extensive research on physi-
cal theories relevant to psi functioning; in
particular, work on multidimensional
geometries.
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This hypothesis, put forward by I. M. Kogan
of the Soviet Union, suggests that information
transfer under conditions of sensory shielding
is mediated by ELF waves with wavelengths in the
300 to 1000-km region ..
12-15
Experimental sup-
port for the hypothesis is claimed on the basis
of: less than inverse square attenuation with
distance, compatible both with earth-ionosphere
waveguide mode trapping, with source-percipient
distances lying in the induction field range as
opposed to the radiation field range; observed
low bit rates (0.005-0.1 bits/s) compatible with
the information carrying capacity of ELF waves;
apparent ineffectiveness of ordinary electro-
magnetic shielding as an attenuator; and stan-
dard antenna calculations entailing biologically
generated currents yielding results compatible
with observed signal-to-noise ratios.
On the negative side with regard to a
straightforward ELF interpretation as a blanket
hypothesis are: (a) apparent high-resolution,
real-time descriptions of remote activities in
sufficient detail to require a channel capacity
in all probability greater than that allowed by
a conventional modulation of an ELF signal; (b)
lack of a proposed mechanism for coding (and
decoding) the information onto the proposed ELF
carrier; and (c) apparent precognition data.
The hypothesis must nonetheless remain open at
this stage of research, since it is conceivable
that counterindication (a) may eventually be
circumvented on the basis that the apparent high
resolution and high bit rate results from a mix-
ture of low bit rate input and high bit rate
"filling in the blanks" from imagination; coun-
terindication (b) is common to a number of nor-
mal perceptual tasks and may therefore simply
reflect a lack of sophistication on our part with
regard to perceptual functioning;
and counter-
indication (c) may be accommodated by an ELF
hypothesis if advanced waves as well as retarded
waves are admitted.29,32
Experimentation to determine whether the ELF
hypothesis is viable can be carried out by the
use of ELF sources as targets, by the study of
parametric dependence on propagational directions
and diurnal timing, by experimentation under
unusual conditions of shielding (e.g., in a
submarine), and by the exploration of interfer-
ence effects caused by creation of a high-
intensity ELF environment during experimentation.
All of these are under consideration in our
laboratory and elsewhere.
Because of the apparent difficulties with
the ELF hypothesis, especially in accounting
for the relatively high resolution and data rate
of paranormal perception, serious consideration
is being given to alternative mechanisms. A
more speculative, but promising, hypothesis,
which could in principle account for both remote
viewing and precognition, was developed in con-
junction with Gerald Feinberg of Columbia
University. It is proposed that the ordinary
Minkowski 4-space ( three spatial, one temporal
coordinates) might simply be the real part of an
eight-dimensional complex space-time. For this
generalized coordinate model we let the spatial
coordinates x - x + ix , and similarly for time,
t + + + it . Analogous to the expression for
the square of the distance between two points in
Minkowski 4-space,
As2 = Ax2 - c2At2
we take the corresponding expression in the com-
plex 8-space to be
Ag2 = AsAs* = Ax2 + Ax 12 - c2At2 - 2At12
With regard to modeling remote viewing in
real time (At = 0), we can construct situations
in which the remaining first, second, and
fourth terms in the above equation add to zero
(As = 0). Therefore, even though there is an
ordinary (3-space) separation Ax between the two
points, the distance in the complex 8-space is
reduced to zero. Under the hypothesis that the
imaginary (primed) coordinates are accessible
to consciousness, reduction of the 8-space
separation to zero could in principle provide
for a coupling between remote viewer and target
site. Given the additional geometrical channels
provided by this model, a similar argument can
be mounted to account for precognition (4s = 0
for At < 0). We thus have the possibility of a
geometrical interpretation of the "Quantum
Interconnectedness" principle by which events
remote in spacetime are nonetheless connected by
non-local correlations,
22-24
or, in this inter-
pretation, by the nature of the fabric of
-
spacetime itself.
We are presently pursuing the implications
of these and other models. Our goal in these
investigations is to develop a theoretical
structure to account for the data at hand, and
to predict new, testable experimental outcomes.
CONCLUS IONS
In this paper we have described our inves-
tigation of particular aspects of paranormal
functioning of human subjects. Specifically, we
have examined the human capability to access and
describe, by mental processes, information
sources blocked from ordinary perception by rea-
son of distance and shielding. We have found
remote sensing to be a robust phenomenon in
which experienced and inexperienced subjects are
able to describe in words and drawings both the
location and actions of experimenters placed at
undisclosed sites at varying distances from the
subjects.
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From over seventy experiments with remote
sensing, we have obtained three principal find-
ings. First, we have established that it is
possible to acquire significant amounts of in-
formation about remote locations. Second, the
physical distance separating the subject from
the scene -- even distances ranging over thousands
of kilometers in recent transcontinental experi-
ments -- does not appear to lessen the accuracy of
the perception. Third, the use of Faraday cage
electrical shielding does not in any apparent
way degrade the quality of the description
obtained.
One of the purposes of our research is to
make use of the remote perception experimental
data base to deduce the relevant physical prin-
ciples and laws that govern paranormal function-
ing. In pursuit of this goal we are endeavoring
to define the level of compatibility of para-
normal phenomena with the laws of physics as
presently understood and to examine the limits
of specific physical theories in modeling these
phenomena. To this end, we have considered some
physical models potentially applicable to remote
perception, but further investigation must be
pursued. Therefore, we plan to continue our
research efforts in the belief that not only can
we use physical principles to help bring about
an understanding of psi phenomena, but we an-
ticipate that the psi data base may make a con-
tribution toward the clarification of certain
existing problems in physics.
REFERENCES
1,
Russell Targ and Harold Puthoff, "Informa-
tion transfer under conditions of sensory
shielding," Nature, vol. 252, pp. 602-607,
October 18, 1974.
2.
Harold Puthoff and Russell Targ, "A Per-
ceptual channel for information transfer
over kilometer distances: Historical per-
spective and recent research," Proc. IEEE,
vol. 64, pp. 329-354, March 1976.
3.
Russell Targ and Harold Puthoff, Mind-Reach.
New York: Delacorte Press, 1977.
4.
Arthur Hastings and David Hurt, "A confir-
matory remote viewing in a group setting,'
Proc. IEEE, vol. 64, October 1976.
5.
Thomas Whitson, David Bogart, John Palmer,
and Charles Tart, "Preliminary experiments
in group remote viewing," Proc. IEEE, vol.
64, October 1976.
6.
Jacques Vallee, Arthur Hastings, and
Gerold Askevold, "Remote viewing experi-
ments through computer conferencing,"
Proc.
IEEE, vol. 64, October 1976.
7.
John Bisaha and B. J. Dunne, "Precognitive
remote viewing in the Chicago area, a rep-
lication of the Stanford experiment,"
Research in Parapsychology 1976. Metuchen,
NJ: The Scarecrow Press Inc. (in press).
8.
J. Ehrenwald, "Cerebral localization and the
psi syndrome," J. of Nervous and Mental
Disease, vol. 161, No. 6, pp. 393-398.
9.
R. Ornstein, The nature of human conscious-
ness. San Francisco, CA: Freeman, 1973,
Ch. 7 and 8.
10.
R. W. Sperry, "Cerebral organization and
behavior," Science, vol. 133, pp. 1749-
1757, 1961.
11.
K. Osis, "New ASPR research on out-of-the-
body experiences," ASPR Newsletter, No. 14,
Summer 1972.
12.
I. M. Kogan, "Is telepathy possible?,"
Radio Eng., vol. 21, p. 75, January 1966.
13.
"Telepathy, hypotheses and observa-
tions," Radio Eng., vol. 22, p. 141,
January 1967.
14.
,
"Information theory analysis of tele-
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15.
"The information theory aspect of
telepathy," RAND Publ. P-4145, Santa Monica,
CA, July 1969.
16.
M. A. Persinger, "Geophysical models for
parapsychological experiences," Psychoener-
getic Systems, vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 63-74,
1975.
17.
"The paranormal -- P. II: Mechanisms
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and models," M.S. S. Information Corp., New
York, 1974.
18. J. S. Bell, "On the problem of hidden
variables in quantum theory," Rev. Mod.
Phys., vol. 38, no. 3, p. 447, July 1966.
19.
A. Einstein, B. Podolsky, and N. Rosen,
"Can quantum-mechanical description of
physical reality be considered complete?,"
Phys, Rev., vol. 47, p. 777, May 15, 1935.
20.
H. Stapp, "Theory of reality," Lawrence-
Berkeley Lab. Rep. LBL-3837, Univ. of
California, Berkeley, April 1975.
21.
R. H. Dicke and J. P. Wittke, Introduction
to Quantum Mechanics.
Reading MA:
Addison-
Wesley, 1960, Ch. 7.
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22. D. J. Bohm and B. J. Hiley, "On the intu-
itive understanding of non-locality as im-
plied by quantum theory," Foundations of
Physics, vol. 5, pp. 93-109, 1975.
23.
J. J. Freedman and J. F. Clauser, "Experi-
mental test of local hidden variable
theories," Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 28, No.
14, p. 938, April 3, 1972.
24.
J. F. Clauser and M. A. Horne, "Experimen-
tal consequences of objective local
theories," Phys. Rev. D, vol. 10, No. 2,
p. 526, July 15, 1974.
25. E. P. Wigner, "The problem of measurement,"
Amer. J. Phys., vol. 31, No. 1, p, 6, 1963.
26.
E. H. Walker, "Foundations of paraphysical
and parapsychological phenomena," in Proc.
Conf. Quantum Physics and Parapsychology
(Geneva, Switzerland), New York:
Para-
psychology Foundation, 1975.
.....
...
- -
.. ..... .. ..
. . .....
27. G. Feinberg, "Possibility of faster-than-
light particles,"
Phys. Rev., vol. 159,
p. 1089, 1967.
28. J. A. Stratton, Electromagnetic Theory.
New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1941.
29.
G. Feinberg, "Precognition -- A memory of
things future?," in Proc. Conf. Quantum
Physics and Parapsychology (Geneva,
Switzerland), New York: Parapsychology
Foundation, 1975.
.30.
0. Costa de Beauregard, "Quantum paradoxes
and Aristotle's twofold information con-
cept," in Proc. Conf. Quantum Physics and
Parapsychology (Geneva, Switzerland), New
York: Parapsychology Foundation, 1975.
31. B. Julesz, Foundations of cyclopean per-
ception. Chicago, IL: Univ. of Chicago
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32.
H. Puthoff and R. Targ, in Psychic Explora-
tion -- A Challenge for Science, J. White,
Ed. New York:
Putnam, 1974, pp. 522-542.
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POSSIBLE EEG CORRELATES TO REMOTE STIMULI UNDER
CONDITIONS OF SENSORY SHIELD ING
E. C. May,
*
Russell Targ, and H. E. Puthoff
Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, California 94025
ABSTRACT
We have investigated the ability of certain
individuals to perceive remote ( faint) stimuli
at a noncognitive level of awareness. To inves-
tigate this we have looked for systematic
changes in a subject's brainwave (EEG) produc-
tion occurring at the same time as light flashes
are generated on a random schedule in a remote
laboratory. Although we have found in this in-
vestigation that significant correlations appear
to exist between the times of light flashes and
the times of brainwave alterations, we consider
these data to be only suggestive, with a defini-
tive result requiring further experimentation.
INTRODUCTION
In a number of laboratories evidence has
been obtained indicating the existence of an as-
yet-unidentified channel wherein information is
coupled from remote electromagnetic stimuli to
the human nervous system as indicated by physio-
logical response, even though overt responses
such as verbalizations or key presses provide no
evidence for such information transfer. Physio-
logical measures have included plethysmographic
response- and EEG activity. 2, 3 Kamiya, Lindsley,
Pribram, Silverman, Walter, and others have
suggested that a whole range of EEG responses
such as evoked potentials (EPs), spontaneous
EEG, and the contingent negative variation (CNV)
might be sensitive indicators of the detection
of remote stimuli not mediated by usual sensory
processes.
4
A pilot study was therefore undertaken at
SRI to determine whether EEG activity could be
used as a reliable indicator of information
transmission between an isolated subject and a
remote stimulus. Following earlier work of
others, we assumed that perception could be in-
dicated by such a measure even in the absence of
verbal or other overt indicators.
To aid in selecting a stimulus, we noted
that Silverman and Buchsbaum attempted, without
success, to detect EP changes in a subject in
response to a single stroboscopic flash stimu-
lus observed by another subject.'
5
Kamiya sug-
gested that because of the unknown temporal
characteristics of the information channel, it
might be more appropriate to use repetitive
bursts of light to increase the probability of
detecting information transfer.º
Therefore,
in our study we chose to use repetitive light
bursts as stimuli.
7-9
PILOT STUDY AT SRI
In the design of the study it was assumed
that the application of remote stimuli would
result in responses similar to those obtained
under conditions of direct stimulation.
For
example, when normal subjects are stimulated
with a flashing light, their EEG typically shows
a decrease in the amplitude of the resting
rhythm and a driving of the brain waves at the
frequency of the flashes.
We hypothesized that
if we stimulated one subject in this manner (a
putative sender), the EEG of another subject in
a remote room with no flash present (a receiver),
might show changes in alpha (8-13 Hz) activity,
and possibly EEG driving similar to that of the
sender, either by means of coupling to the sen-
der's EEG, or by coupling directly to the
stimulus.
We informed our subject that at certain
times a light was to be flashed in a sender's
eyes in a distant room, and if the subject per-
ceived that event, consciously or unconsciously,
it might be evident from changes in his EEG out-
put. The receiver was seated in a visually
opaque, acoustically and electrically shielded
double-walled steel room located approximately
7 m from the sender's room.
We initially worked with four female and
two male volunteer subjects. These were desig-
nated "receivers." The senders were either other
subjects or the experimenters. We decided be-
forehand to run one or two sessions of 36 trials
each with each subject in this selection proce-
dure, and to do a more extensive study with any
subject whose results were positive.
A Grass PS-2 photostimulator placed about
1 m in front of the sender was used to present
flash trains of 10 s duration. The receiver's
EEG activity from the occipital region (Oz),
referenced to linked mastoids, was amplified with
a Grass 5P-1 preamplifier and associated driver
amplifier with a bandpass of 1-120 Hz. The EEG
data were recorded on magnetic tape with an Am-
pex SP 300 recorder.
On each trial, a tone burst of fixed fre-
quency was presented to both sender and receiver
and was followed in one second by either a 10 s
train of flashes or a null flash interval pre-
sented to the sender. Thirty-six such trials
were given in an experimental session, consisting
*
Consultant to SRI.
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of 12 null trails -- no flashes following the
tone -- 12 trials of flashes at 6 f.p.s. and 12
trials of flashes at 16 f. p. s., all randomly in-
termixed, determined by entries from a table of
random numbers. Each of the trials consisted of
an 11-s EEG epoch. The last 4 s of the epoch
were selected for analysis to minimize the desyn-
chronizing action of the warning cue. This 4-s
segment was subjected to Fourier analysis on a
LINC 8 computer.
Spectrum analyses gave no evidence of EEG
driving in any receiver, although in control runs
the receivers did exhibit driving when physically
stimulated with the flashes. But of the six sub-
jects studied initially, one subject showed a
consistent alpha blocking effect. We therefore
undertook further study with this subject. Of
our six subjects, this one had by far the most
monochromatic EEG spectrum. Figure 1 shows a
typical occipital EEG spectrum of this subject.
6
5
POWER --- UV-/Hz
4
2
..... ..
1
-
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
FREQUENCY -- Hz
FIGURE 1
TYPICAL POWER SPECTRUM AVERAGED OVER
TWENTY 8-SECOND EPOCHS
Data from seven sets of 36 trials each were
collected from this subject on three separate
days. This comprised all the data collected to
date with this subject under the test conditions
described above. The alpha band was identified
from average spectra; then scores of average
power and peak power were obtained from indi-
vidual trials and subjected to statistical anal-
ysis. The final analysis showed that power
measures were less in the 16 f.p.s. case than in
the 0 f.p.s. in all seven sets of peak power
measures and in six out of seven average power
measures.
Siegel's two-tailed t approximation to the
nonparametric randomization test --
was applied
to the data from all sets, which included two
sessions in which the sender was removed. Aver-
age power on trials associated with the occur-
rence of 16 f.p.s. was significantly less than
when there were no flashes (t = 2.09, d.f = 118,
P < 0.04).
The second measure, peak power, was
also significantly less in the 16 f.p.s. condi-
tions than in the null condition (t = 2.16,
d.f. = 118, P < 0.03). The average response in
the 6 f. p. s. condition was in the same direction
as that associated with 16 f. p.s., but the ef-
fect was not statistically significant.
As part of the experimental protocol the
subject was asked to indicate conscious assess-
ment for each trial as to which stimulus was
generated. The guess was registered by the sub-
ject via one-way telegraphic communication. An
analysis of these guesses has shown them to be
at chance, indicating the absence of any supra-
liminal cueing, so arousal as evidenced by sig-
nificant alpha blocking occurred only at the
noncognitive level of awareness.
Several control procedures were. undertaken
to determine if these results were produced by
system artifacts or by subtle cueing of the
subject. Low level recordings were made from
saline of 12 kQ resistance in place of the sub-
ject, with and without the introduction of
10 Hz, 50 uV signals from a battery-operated
generator. The standard experimental protocol
was adhered to and spectral analysis of the
results were carried out. There was no evidence
in the spectra associated with the flash fre-
quencies, and the 10 Hz signal was not
perturbed.
In another control procedure a five foot
pair of leads was draped across the subject's
chair (subject absent). The leads were con-
nected to a Grass P-5 amplifier via its high
impedance input probe. The bandwidth was set
0.1 Hz to 30 kHz with a minimum gain of 200,000.
The output of the amplifier was connected to
one input of a C.A.T. 400C "averager." Two-
second sweeps, triggered at onset of the tone,
were taken once every 13 seconds for approxi-
mately two hours, for about 550 samples. No
difference in noise level between the fore-
period and the onset of flicker was observed.
REPLICATION STUDIES AT LANGLEY PORTER
The next effort was directed toward repli-
cation by an independent laboratory of the
original SRI study of EEG response to remote
strobelight stimuli. Arrangements for replica-
tion were made with the Langley Porter Neuro-
psychiatric Institute, University of California
Medical Center, San Francisco.
As a special precaution against the possi-
bility of system artifacts in the form of elec-
tromagnetic pickup from the strobelight dis-
charge or associated electronic equipment (e.g.,
through the power lines), SRI developed an
entirely battery-operated package for use as a
stimulus generator for the EEG experimentation.
It consists of a battery-driven incandescent
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LIGHT CHOPPER MOTOR
RUNS CONTINUOUSLY
0
0
LIGHT
0
0
0
EEG CHANNELS
1, 2, 3, 4
0
HALLWAY
BETWEEN
ROOMS
O
TIMING
CHANNEL 5
2 sec
WARNING
TONE
7
10 sec LOCKING
CIRCUIT CONTROLS
LAMP
BUFFER
AMP
~
SHIELDED ROOM
10 Hz
TIMING
GENERATOR
1 kHz TONE
GENERATOR
2 sec BEFORE
EACH TOTAL
PERIOD (Light,
or No Light)
2
SA-4540-11
FIGURE 2
SCHEMATIC OF THE REMOTE SENSING EEG EXPERIMENT
lamp, whose CW output passes through a mechani-
cal chopper continuously driven by a battery-
driven motor as shown in Figure 2. A 10-Hz
timing generator (computer triggered) controls
the generation of a 1-kHz warning tone two sec
before onset of the experimental period, and
also drives a locking circuit that determines
the presence or absence of the ten-sec light
stimuli, again all battery operated .. Thus
everything on the left of the diagram of Fig-
ure 2 is battery operated and therefore inde-
pendent of the power line system. Further,
replacement of the arc-discharge strobelamp by
an incandescent lamp eliminates the possibility
of direct subliminal pickup of audio or elec-
trical signals from possible transients associ-
ated with the arc discharge or associated
electronics.
Description of the EEG Processor
A hardware single channel power spectrum
analyzer was constructed from a commercial band-
pass filter with corner frequencies of 9.0 and
12.0 Hz, and 48 dB down at 8.0 and 13.0 Hz.
Analog multipliers convert the filter output to
a signal proportional to in-band power. To con-
firm that this system is equivalent to the stan-
dard FFT analysis used in the pilot study, the
analog data of the pilot study was reanalyzed,
and the result was found to be consistent with
the earlier analysis.
Experimental Protocol
Each experimental session consisted of 40
trials, 20 each for the 0 (no light) and 16
f.p.s. of the remote light stimulus. A trial is
defined as a warning tone followed by a 10 sec-
ond period consisting of a 2 second wait, and
two 4 second data collection periods. The trial
rate was one trial every 30 ± 1 seconds. The
trial sequence was randomized subject to the
following conditions: (1) in each group of 10
trials there were equal numbers of each condi-
tion, and (2) no more than three in a row of a
single type were allowed. Seven 40 trial se-
quences were made according to this prescription
and recorded separately on audio tape. During
the session, trials were generated from one of
these tapes and the sequence was unknown to the
experimenters since the sequence tapes were
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generated one month in advance of the experi-
ments. As in standard EEG protocol, and in
accordance with preestablished criteria, certain
trials were deleted after the session for three
reasons only: artifact, logic circuit failure,
or abnormal EEG power. If a trial was rejected,
a trial of the opposite stimulus condition was
rejected at random from the particular set of 10
trials in question. If more than 10 trials of
a given type were rejected from a session, the
entire session was deleted.
(This occurred
twice in each experiment.)
Six channels of EEG and one logic channel
taken from the sequence tape were recorded on a
multiplexed FM analog tape recorder. The logic
on the tape differentiated the trials between
flashing and nonflashing conditions.
In pretesting the equipment, we ran the
experiment using unselected subjects such as
laboratory personnel, in order to test the
adequacy of the experiment and to determine
whether there were any correlated electronic or
mechanical discharges from the apparatus.
In
20 sessions of data acquisition, of 40 each (800
trials) there were no significant differences
between the null and 16 Hz conditions.
RESULTS
Using the above protocol, two experiments
were conducted during a three-month period. For
half of the sessions, the subject was asked to
press a button when she felt the light was
flashing. For the six sessions (105 trials each
for the 0 and 16 f.p.s. conditions when she was
not asked to overtly indicate her feelings about
the light, there was a slight decrease of in-
band EEG power measured over the left occipital
region of the brain. Similarly, for the six
sessions (107 trials each for the 0 and 16 f.p.s.
conditions) when she was asked to respond overt-
ly, there was this time a significant decrease
of in-band EEG power (p ≤ 0.037, using an F
ratio test derived from a two-way analysis of
variance). In considering the experiment as
consisting of the combined 212 trials in each
stimulus condition regardless of the overt re-
sponse contingency, we find a statistically sig-
nificant decrease in in-band EEG power (p <
0.011, using F ratio test as above).
During the second experiment, three months
later, a different contingency was added to de-
termine if a "sender" was necessary to produce
the effect we had observed earlier. For a given
session, a random procedure (with equal trials)
was used to determine if a person (called the
"sender" person) would be looking at the photo-
simulator. There was no one present with the
photo-stimulator otherwise. For the 7 "non-
sender" sessions (121 trials each for the 0 and
16 f.p.s. conditions) we find a statistically
significant increase of in-band EEG power mea-
sured over the mid-occipital region of the brain
(p < 0.039 using an F ratio test as above).
During the "sender" sessions (123 trials in each
stimulus condition) there was a slight increase
of in-band EEG power. All together, there was a
statistically significant increase of in-band EEG
power when the 244 trials were analyzed regard-
less of "sender" condition (p < 0.008 using an F
ratio test as above), and there was no signifi-
cant difference found between "sender"/"no-
sender" conditions.
For both experiments, we considered in-
band EEG power for the 0-4 second and 4-8 second
time periods independently to determine if the
effects were time dependent. Although some of
these isolated sub-intervals were statistically
significant, no systematic relationship emerged.
Thus the effect appears to be cumulative over
the 8 seconds. The 0-8 second results are sum-
marized in Table 1.
Table 1
SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF THE REPLICATION EXPERIMENTS SHOWING
POWER MEANS AND STATISTICAL RESULTS FOR THE VARIOUS EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS
Experiment I
Experiment II
Guessing
Sessions
Non-Guessing
Sessions
Combined
Sender
Sessions
Non-Guessing
Sessions
Combined
No light flash
Light flash
957
704
832
854
860
766
810
873
647
761
844
852
F ratio
4.39
2.20
6.47
0.017
1; 232
4.33
1; 228
7.03
df ; df
2
1; 202
1; 198
1; 460
ps
0.037
0.14
1; 400
0.011
0.90
0.039
0.0083
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DISCUSSION
Although our pilot experiment and the two
replication studies all showed significant
changes in EEG production correlated with the
presence or absence of a remote light stimulus,
the sign of the systematic change in power in
the third study was opposite to that of the
first two. We therefore undertook a detailed
frequency analysis of the EEG data tapes from
the last two experiments, since the pilot ex-
periment had already been subjected to fast-
Fourier-transform (FFT) analysis. We conjec-
tured that the observed power change in these
experiments might be the result of a very small
frequency shift, which could become translated
into a large amplitude change due to discrimi-
nator action of the alpha-band filter. In a
chapter on alpha blocking, Kooi, in his Funda-
mentals of Electroencephalography says, for ex-
ample,
. attentiveness is associated with a
reduction in amplitude and an increase in aver-
age frequency of spontaneous cerebral poten-
tials. . . The center frequency of the alpha
rhythm may be influenced by the type of ongoing
mental activity. Shifts in frequency may be
highly consistent as two different tasks are
performed alternately." The FFT analysis for
the second experiment showed that the average
peak EEG power occurred most often near 8 Hz,
and thus fell slightly below the hardware sum-
ming window (±3 dB at 8.7-12.4 Hz) enhancing a
possible discriminator effect. The FFT analysis
further showed that there was an overall in-
crease in frequency of peak power but the shift
was statistically nonsignificant. This slight
shift of 0.11 Hz could possibly account for the
observed power increase due to the highly, non-
linear discriminator effects. In examining
other portions of the spectrum for further ef-
fects, we found that systematic amplitude
changes are highly dependent upon where in the
frequency spectrum the power sum is taken. This
is to be expected since almost all EEG phenomena
are known to be strongly frequency dependent.
In the pilot study the frequency region for
analysis was centered about the subject's domi-
nant EEG output frequency with bandpass deter-
mined by the full width ten-percent power points.
In the two replication studies we used hardware
filters at this same frequency. FFT analysis
showed clearly that if other filter bands had
been chosen, significant correlations would not
have been found. Thus, although our filter
selection was made before the collection of any
data, other experimenters might have reasonably
chosen other criteria for frequency selection.
Therefore, although we have found statistically
significant evidence for EEG correlates to re-
mote light flash stimuli, we consider these data
to be only suggestive, with a definitive result
requiring further experimentation.
REFERENCES
1.
E. D. Dean, Int. J. of Neuropsychiatry,
Vol. 2, p. 439, 1966.
2.
C. T. Tart, Int. J. of Parapsychology,
Vol. 5, p. 375, 1963.
3.
T. D. Duane and T. Behrendt, Science, Vol.
150, p. 367, 1965.
4.
R. Cavanna, Ed., Psi Favorable States of
Consciousness. New York:
Parapsychology
Foundation, 1970.
5.
Ibid., pp. 143-169.
6.
Ibid., pp. 158-159.
7.
R. Targ and H. Puthoff, "Information Trans-
mission Under Conditions of Sensory Shield-
ing," Nature, Vol. 252, No. 5476, pp. 602-
607, October 18, 1974.
8.
C. Rebert and A. Turner, "EEG Spectrum
Analysis Techniques Applied to the Problem
of Psi Phenomena," Physician's Drug Manual,
Vol. 5, Nos. 9-12, Vol. 6, Nos. 1-8,
pp. 82-88, January-December 1974.
9.
H. Puthoff and R. Targ, "A Perceptual Chan-
nel for Information Transfer Over Kilometer
Distances: Historical Perspective and
Recent Research," Proc. IEEE, Vol. 64,
No. 3, pp. 329-354, March 1976.
10.
D. Hill and G. Parr, Electroencephalo-
graphy: A symposium on its Various
Aspects. New York: MacMillan, 1963.
11.
S. Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics for
the Behavior Sciences. New York:
McGraw-
Hill, 1956, pp. 152-156.
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AN INVESTIGATION OF SOVIET PSYCHICAL RESEARCH*
E. C. Wortz, A. S. Bauer, R. F. Blackwelder, J. W. Eerkens, and A. J. Saur
AlResearch Manufacturing Company of California
2525 W. 190th St., Torrance, Calif. 90509
SUMMARY
This paper presents the results of an
analysis of Soviet research on the biophysics
of parapsychological processes. The study
covered Soviet application of statistical
theorles, research done on electro-statics,
the development of remote sensors, hypothesized
carrier mechanisms, human sensitivity to
magnetic fields, and training to improve
performance of subjects. Speculations are
made with regard to Soviet research organiza-
tion and as to the direction of future R&D.
For example, it appears that parapsychological
investigations in the Soviet Union are con-
ducted under two types of circumstances:
first, work that is not officially sanctioned
or supported by the Russian government;
and second, work that is officially supported
and is conducted In a military research
laboratory or in a laboratory that is an
adjunct to another institution. Finally,
some conclusions are drawn concerning
Soviet progress in understanding and employing
what are considered novel biophysical infor-
mation transfer mechanisms.
INTRODUCTION
Historically, parapsychological research in
the United States and the Soviet Union has been
markedly different in approach. The Soviets
have generally proceeded from the perspectives
of a psychophysiology, which is Pavlovian in
origin, and the physical and mathematical sci-
ences, whereas parapsychological research in
the U.S. has been largely Influenced by early
approaches in England and dealt with attempts
to convince others that such processes exist.
In the recent past, typical research in the
United States has attempted to reveal the
legitimacy of parapsychology by statistically
oriented experimentation based on association
theory or by exploration of experimental para-
digms that might be more demonstrative, such
as exploring telepathy via dreams, sheep versus
goat experimental designs, children, receiver
characteristics, transmitter characteristics,
psi characteristics, etc. Recently, investiga-
tors in the United States have become gradually
influenced by the apparent successes of their
Russian counterparts and in general seem to be
commencing to emulate their approach.
On reviewing the Soviet literature,
research in novel biophysical information
transfer (NBIT) was emphasized. The Soviet
literature almost invariably shows interest in
the physical and physiological mechanisms. An
example is the interest in psychoenergetics,
bioplasma, and psychotronics. The term psycho-
tronics was coined by a French journalist after
the analogy with electronics, bionics, nucle-
onics, and others. The Russians have devised
their own term -- psychoenergetics. These new
names were chosen to give the field of study an
air of scientific or technological respect-
ability.
A fundamental question remains: does the
name imply a basic difference in the approach
and, if so, what effects can be expected from
It? Judging from the available literature, the
name does imply a difference in the approach of
the Russian and Czech Investigators from that
of most Western parapsychologists. Some of the
differences are outlined below.
(1)
The Russians do not undertake studies
like those of J.B. Rhine, in which
remote card reading or other simple
telepathic tasks are carried out
repeatedly to gather statistical evi-
dence. The Russians assume the reality
of thought transference. Their best
experiments are designed to elucidate
the physical basis of these novel bio-
physical information transfer (NBIT)
mechanisms.
(2)
Many of the Russian researchers that
publish in open literature in this
field pursue their studies on their
own time and at their own personal
expense. They lack the resources
to carry out well designed or long
statistical studies.
(3)
Many Westerners remain convinced that
parapsychology will never be explained
in terms of physics. They cling to an
undertone of a religious-like belief In
transcendent mechanisms. The Russians,
in contrast, reject such an approach;
being doctrinaire materialists, every-
thing has a physical, scientific expla-
nation. Again, this line of reasoning
reinforces the trend toward eliciting
the physical mechanisms of NBIT.
* Abstracted from Novel Biophysical Information
Transfer (NBIT), AlResearch Report 76-13197.
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In reviewing Soviet and Western work on
NBIT phenomena, it seems reasonable that
serious interdisciplinary research and develop-
ment is being carried on. Furthermore, there
seems to be veridical indication that the
Soviets have organized laboratories for just
such programs. On the other hand, it is obvious
that many Russian workers in this field pursue
their research as extracurricular activity, with
little or no funding. Thus, there are hints of
secret work as well as indication that para-
psychological research may be in disfavor. It
may be that high quality, systematic research
is officially approved, weil funded, and well
organized, whereas research in this field from
"nonofficial" laboratories may be allowed to
flounder without funds, thus providing a smoke
screen of poor quality work. If the Soviets
did indeed establish laboratories for a
systematic approach to this problem, in our
opinion they are certainly capable of making
good progress.
The literature surveyed varies widely in
degree of sophistication. Most experimental
papers give rather vague descriptions and
insufficient data to assess the accuracy and
Importance of claimed results. Upon completion
of the review, the bulk of what was considered
to be creditable work was found to be centered
around, but not limited to, the activities
of three principal individuals -- Kogan, Adamenko,
and Sergeyev. Of the theoretical papers, those
by Kogan are undoubtedly the best and reflect
the good thinking of an experienced physicist.
Using physically acceptable arguments, Kogan
demonstrates the possibility that ELF and
VLF carrier waves might be part of NBIT
mechanisms, and initiates an information theory
approach to the study of NBIT. His ideas are
much like those of Persinger.
The papers by Adamenko, on the other hand,
are spotty with respect to knowledge of modern
physics and physiology. He utilizes a number of
poorly defined and unquantifiable concepts such
as "bioplasma," "psi energy," etc. Neverthe-
less, significant contributions are made by
him -- particularly his study and explanation of
telekinesis in terms of electrostatics. The
papers by Sergeyev show the effectiveness
of a radar signature expert turned to analyzing
electrophysiological events. He shows some
Interesting new possibilities, taking into
account that the noise in the signals not only
contains statistical random variations, but that
the carriers also may have non-stationary
drifts. His work also seems to suffer from
the lack of an interdisciplinary approach.
Furthermore, he is probably responsible
for the development of at least one (and
perhaps two) remote physiological sensor.
APPLICATION OF STATISTICAL THEORIES TO NOVEL
BIOPHYSICAL INFORMATION TRANSFER MECHANISMS
In the field of theoretical statistics,
the Russians are usually considered to be
ahead of the Western countries. Kolmogorov
and his contemporaries did a considerable
amount of work in the 1920 to 1945 era,
developed many new theories, and applied them
to some classical problems, such as
Kolmogorov's theory of isotropic turbulence.
Directly before and during World War II, Rice,
Shannon, and others in the West developed more
advanced ideas that are now embedded within
information theory and communication theory.
However, the Soviets have been the first to
apply these ideas and techniques to the field of
parapsychology. I. M. Kogan seems to have been
the leader in this venture and the known papers
by him are good in that he demonstrates a
knowledge of these advanced fields, correctly
applies the techniques, and reaches some justi-
fiable and creditable conclusions.
Kogan seems
to have started working on these ideas in the
early 60's. Ryzl states that the Bioinformation
Section of the Scientific Technical Society of
Radiotechnique and Electrocommunication was
founded in 1965 and that Kogan was its first
director, indicating that Kogan's ideas were
viewed favorably at that time. 1
Ryzl further
reports that the Bioinformation Section seemed
to flourish under Kogan. It organized meetings,
seminars, and discussions; he embarked upon a
publicity campaign in newspapers and magazines
and was concerned with the use of parapsychology
as a military weapon. Kogan also headed the
section as it undertook some successful
experiments Involving transmission of images
over short ranges.
Kogan seems to have been at his peak when
he visited the United States in 1969 and gave a
presentation at U.C.L.A. on the application of
information theory to the problem of telepathy.2
That paper summarized his work and represents
the most advanced work on this topic by anyone.
Then publication of his work inexplicably
stopped. Judging from the papers reviewed,
no one else in the U.S.S.R. has reported this
line of endeavor.
Although this work may have been completely
stopped, it hardly seems likely. Considering
that Kogan had successfully started to apply
these new concepts to parapsychology and had
obtained some new information, it is more
plausible that this work did not abruptly stop,
but is continuing secretly. Ryzi indirectly
lends credance to this idea by discussing the
military work done at Kogan's institute. 1
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It is significant that the Soviets
pursued the application of nonstationary
analysis to parapsychology, especially in the
study of EEG signals. Sergeyev has been the
leader in this effort; he has used both
correlation functions and spectral analysis.3, 4
Under the more common assumption of station-
arity, these statistical quantities are
independent of time. Since parapsychological
events are quite Intermittent and occur
rather randomly, their statistical functions,
such as correlation, spectra, etc., may vary
dramatically in time.
Sergeyev thus defines a nonstationary
auto-correlation function as :
R(+, T) =
-
[X(S) - X(S) ][X(S + T) (1)
-
+
- X(S + T)] dS
...
S
++T
where X is the stochastic variable, X Is the
average value of X (presumably over time T),
T is a time delay, and T is the averaging
time. He does not specify the averaging time
T, but T must be of the same order of magnitude
as the time scale of the event being studied.
Since R(t, T) is a function of the time
delay T, Sergeyev suggests characterizing this
correlation function by several time scales,
which he defines as:
T(n)(+) =
1
[R(+, T) ]" dT.
(2)
Thus, T(n) are random functions of time and
Sergeyev claims that T(1)/T(2) is a measure of
the nonlinear modulation by the stimuli received
through extrasensory channels. He does not
Justify nor substantiate this conclusion.
Sergeyev has applied this type of analysis
in at least two different modes. First, he
compares the ratio T(1)/T(2) from a "bioplasma-
gram" to that obtained from signals external to
the body, such as the fluctuations in the
earth's magnetic field.4 He claims to have
obtained a well-defined relation between these
two signals; however, the data shown in his
paper do not support the statement that Is given
in the text. In spite of this discrepancy,
Sergeyev's ideas are sound, and In view of the
Intermittent nature of parapsychological
phenomena, it seems reasonable to explore
nonstationary analysis of the recorded data.
Ryzi (1968) claims that Sergeyev can detect
an incoming telepathic stimulus by analyzing
EEG records.
Secondly, Sergeyev has applied these ideas
in studying changes in the "bioplasmagram"
during emotional stress.
3
He used digital
analysis and retained the high-frequency
content (i.e., up to 30 kHz) of the EEG. It is
obvious after studying the data in his previous
paper that he also retained the high-frequency
content there as well.4
Although it is not
obvious what type of information Is obtained
in these higher frequencies, Sergeyev does
believe that they are important in the dynamic
functioning of the brain; it Is conceivable
that frequencies higher than the normal beta
wave frequency may be present and would be
Instructive to study.
Also, if a very low frequency (VLF) carrier
wave is Important in the parapsychological
communication channel, a study of these
frequencies would be beneficial.
It is purely speculative to guess what
type of work the Russians are now doing in
this area. Obviously, they have a great
Interest in parapsychology. Mutshall says that
they have opened seven new laboratorles to study
these phenomena since 1960.5
Kogan had just
started to apply Information theory to these
problems and seems to have developed this
technique to the point of usefulness before
publication of his work ceased. Although
information theory cannot explain the physical
mechanism of the NBIT communication channel,
It Is a very useful tool to analyze the data
quantitatively. Kogan had already used this
to yield new Information (e.g., the information
rate dropped as distance traversed increased).
More advances from this avenue of approach
can be expected, such as (1) qualifying the
information to be transferred, (2) designing
experiments more amenable to analysis, and (3)
studying coding and encoding techniques.
Sergeyev's published work suggests that
he is possibly continuing his study of non-
stationary analysis of NBIT phenomena. : In
particular, it seems strange that he did not
publish or even mention the use of his
techniques for cross-correlations or cross-
spectra. Since he almost always was comparing
two different signals (EEG and the earth's
magnetic field), a nonstationary analysis of
the cross-correlation between these signals
seems more appropriate than the single channel
analysis he published.
It also could be expected that Sergeyev
has pursued nonlinear analysis and modeling of
NBIT events. He reported that he found a
1
modulation of the EEG at a frequency fi-f2
when lights were flashing at frequencies f
and f2.
4
If only linear mechanisms were
involved, there would be no energy or modula-
tion of the spectra at a frequency of f-f.,
thus suggesting that nonlinear mechanisms may
be responsible for this behavior. This
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phenomenon should be verified and explained,
if possible.
The Soviets should have a vested interest
in remote viewing, which interestingly Is never
mentioned in the available literature. Based
upon the experience of Puthoff and Targ, it is
not too difficult to set up an experiment in
this area, and it seems reasonable to assume
that the Russians have probably successfully
done so.6
The next step is obviously to
improve the efficiency of the transmission
process. Here, the ideas from information and
communication theory become important tools
because they can be used to determine the
amount of information transferred, and thus
represent a quantitative measure of success
or failure. This tool can then be used to
measure the effect of different variables such
as distance (which Kogan has already done),
directivity, shielding, and the type of
information transferred. Mutshall says Kogan
has studied this also. It is more reasonable
to assume that this work has continued than
that is was terminated at this level of
development.
ELECTROSTATICS OF TELEKINESIS
According to the published reports,
there are several Investigations of telekinesis
(i.e., moving material objects without touching
them) that have occurred at various times and
places in Communist Bloc countries. In work
done in Leningrad by Vasil'yev and his
associates, Mrs. Nina Kulagina (also called
Nelja Mihailova) exhibited remarkable
psychokinetic ability. Benson Herbert, Milan
Ryzł, Zdenek Rejdak, and Viktor Adamenko,
among others, have discussed or commented on
Mrs. Kulagina's feats. In Moscow, Adamenko
worked with another subject, Alla Vinogradova,
who is more skilled in telekinesis than
Nina Kulagina. Benson Herbert and others
also have reported some of the work of
Julius Krmessky of Bratislava, who moves
hanging mobiles. As telekinetic subjects,
the women seem to be superior to the men;
Vinogradova and Kulagina are said to be
able to move objects weighing as much as
100 gm on a table top.
Viktor Adamenko has advanced an expla-
nation for observed phenomena of telekinesis
that is more interesting psychologically
than physically. In the articles "Some
Problems of Biological _Electrodynamics
and Psychoenergetics,"7, 8 he theorizes
that the physical force causing the objects
to move is due to static electric charges
on the objects and electrical fields generated
by the subject. It can be shown (as discussed
subsequently) that electrostatic forces can
indeed be strong enough to produce some of
the effects reported. Anyone living in dry
climates is quite familiar with electro-
static forces: static electricity discharges
from the finger when one walks across the
room to the light switch, and articles of
clothing stick together and crackle with
corona discharge when removed from the gas
clothes drier.
Dr. Adamenko's descriptions of the
observed phenomena are easier to deal with
than his theoretical expositions. An example
is his article in The A.R.E. Journal, Vol.
vill, No. 2, pp. 76 to 77, March 1973, cited
on page 4 of the Annotated Bibliography of
Selective Psychoenergetic Activities, July
1973. In the work with Ms. Vinogradova and
others in Moscow, Adamenko used a dielectric
cube, 50 cm on an edge, as a table. Various
small objects were placed on the upper surface
of the cube. Ms. Vinogradova was able to
induce an electric charge on the cube,
after which she could then move small objects
on its surface. With biofeedback training,
other subjects were able to duplicate
Vinogradova's feats. There must have been
some effect that reduced the coefficient
of friction between the moved object and the
cube, since Adamenko writes at some length
about the reduced friction and theor izes
that the electric field of the cube polarizes
the air molecules and reduces their number
of degrees of freedom from six to two.
addition, Adamenko states that the field
is inhomogenous and produces a net flow of
the air molecules, which tends to buoy up
the objects on the cube. Elsewhere he states
that the electric field is as great as 10,000
v/cm. This value is approximately the maximum
electric field that can exist in dry air
because of corona discharge and ionization
of the air molecules at higher field strengths.
The explanation of air molecules providing
the buoyant force to overcome sliding friction
is necessary because electrostatic forces
alone could not, in the situation described
by Adamenko, levitate objects weighing more
than a gram or so, and because the coefficient
of sliding friction is in the range 0.1 to
0.3 for nonlubricated surfaces.
The concept of a conductor at ground
potential near a charged dielectric surface
as the mechanism for generating an electric
field whose direction and magnitude can be
altered is Illustrated in simplified form in
the Figures 1 and 2. In Figure 1, a plane
conducting surface is placed parallel to
the dielectric. The resulting electric
field is uniform and normal to the two
parallel surfaces. If the extent of each
surface is much larger than the distance
between them, the field is not changed by
moving the plates closer together or farther
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apart. In Figure 2, the plates are not
parallel. Inthis case, the electric field
is nonuniform and has a component parallel
to the dielectric slab.
OBJECT
CONDUCTING PLANE AT
GROUND POTENTIAL
ELECTRIC
FIELD
DIELECTRIC SLAB WITH
UNIFORM SURFACE CHARGE
Figure 1.
Electric Field Between
Parallel Plates
RESOLUTION OF
FIELD INTO NORMAL
AND PARALLEL
COMPONENTS RELATIVE
TO DIELECTRIC SLAB
ELECTRIC FIELD
OBJECT
CONDUCTING PLANE
DIELECTRIC SLAB
5-1686
Figure 2.
Electric Field Between
Nonparallel Plates
In the case illustrated in Figure 1,
the object experiences no force parallel to
the surface of the slab. In the case shown
in Figure 2, the electric field is not normal
to the slab. Hence, if the object has an
electrostatic charge, it will experience a
force that tends to move it parallel to the
plate, either toward or away from the region
of closest approach between the dielectric
slab and the conducting plate. It will
experience a force in the same direction, but
weaker if the effect is due to polarization
of the object rather than an unbalanced
charge.
The human body is a conductor. According
to Adamenko, the conductivity can be varled
at will to affect the field. He does not
try to explain in detail the physiological
mechanism involved. Even with constant
conductivity, the human subject can vary the
field near the dielectric surface by posi-
tioning his (her) body, arms, hands, etc.
There are two possible mechanisms
whereby a small object on the dielectric
surface can be moved by the electric field --
particularly a nonuniform field. The first
mechanism is that the small object is itself
electrostatically charged. The second is that
it is electrically neutral but can be
polarized. An electric dipole in a nonuniform
electric field experiences a force in the
direction of the field.
The work reported by Viktor Adamenko
on telekinesis appears to be genuine infor-
mation. The experimental arrangement he
describes can be analyzed on the basis of
electrostatic theory, with predicted results
in substantial agreement with the results
reported. Adamenko's theoretical explanation
appears to be a mish-mash of classical
electrostatics and parapsychology. It appears
probable that Adamenko himself is a bellever
in the psi field because he tries to incor-
porate it into his theoretical framework.
In terms of application to the trans-
mission of intelligence, the telekinetic
work of Adamenko does not seem to lead any-
where. However, it does point up the ability
of certain individuals to develop an ability
to influence the ambient electrical field,
apparently by volitional control over physical
and physiological processes (e.g., electrical
conductivity of the skin). In addition,
we must not overlook the possibility that
the psychophysiology of this phenomenon may
have relevance to transducer mechanisms.
REMOTE PHYSIOLOGICAL SENSORS
A remote sensor is an instrument for
measuring a physiological response of the
human body without the use of electrodes or
other means of contacting the body. In the
literature reviewed, there are references to
one or more remote sensors developed by Dr.
Gennadij Aleksandrovic Sergeyev .* It is
claimed that one of these instruments will
measure the electroencephalogram of a person
at a distance of 5 m. The instrument is
classified and no credible description of
it is available -- only allusion to its
existence. One must keep in mind that there
is reason to doubt the Russian claim. If
the instrument is to register the EEG, it
must remotely sense the electromagnetic field
associated with the EEG potentials. These
potentials are typically of the order of tens
of microvolts. American Investigators have
measured EEG signals with electrodes placed a
few centimeters from the head. These electrodes
sensed the electric field generated by the
brain. David Cohen has measured the magnetic
fleld associated with the EEG by means of a
search coil several centimeters from the head.9
At larger distances from the head, the electric
and magnetic EEG fields become drowned in
noise. The following discussion Is a specula-
tive attempt to guess the operating principles
of the instrument.
It is possible that a sensitive electric
or magnetic sensor, or some combination of
the two, would detect electrical signals
from a human body at a distance of 5 m.
Although it is unlikely that the output of
*Sergeyev also referenced as Sergeev in
the literature.
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such an Instrument would be a direct measure
of the EEG, it would provide information of
Interest to a police interrogator, such as
the strength and rate of the heart beat,
the tensing and relaxation of muscles, the
depth and rate of breathing, and perhaps
the electrical properties of the skin.
The uses to which the instrument would be
put are reasons enough for official secrecy
about its operating principles. Moreover,
the story that a remote sensor is a remote
EEG sensor would be a natural way of trying
to hide the real purpose of Dr. Sergeyev's
invention. Some support to the speculation
that the invention is a remote lie detector
is provided by the statement by Ostrander
and Schroeder 10 that Sergeyev Is a mathe-
matician at the Uktomskij Laboratory run
by the Soviet military.
In reviewing the available literature,
five references have been found that may help
shed some light on the Sergeyev Invention(s).
First, Ostrander and Schroeder11 report
Sergeyev's assertion that Nina Kulagina,
who reportedly exhibits remarkable telekinetic
ability, generates a pulsating magnetic field
whose amplitude is not much weaker than
the magnetic field of the earth, according
to measurements made with his remote sensor.
Second, the reporter Anatolij Kongro discusses
work by Sergeyev and his students in measuring
emotional states of a subject by a remote
sensor. 12 No description of the instrument
is given in the article. In another reference,
there is a description of a remote sensor.
The sensor consists of a metal disc suspended
In a vessel of water. The disc Is coated
with a semiconductor and appears to be
electrically connected to an EEG recorder.
The patient is connected to the other (ground)
input of the recorder.
The fourth article contains the
Intriguing statement that the sensitivity
of the bloplasmagram detectors is increased
by placing them in water. A doubling of
the output is claimed. Although it Is
claimed that these detectors respond to
electromagnetic radiation, this reviewer
Is unfamiliar with any simple detector
whose sensitivity would be enhanced by
Immersing It In water, except possibly
a proton resonance detector for the magnetic
field. A small acoustic detector (such as
a hydrophone) consisting of a piezoelectric
or magnetostrictive material with appro-
priate electrical connections might exhibit
greater sensitivities to sound when immersed
In water. The greater sensitivity would
be achieved because of the improved match of
acoustic Impedances between water and
detector as compared with the poor match
between air and detector. In addition,
the physical size and shape of the water
container might provide a larger sensitive
area for detecting sound than the detector
alone.
A speculative conclusion from the
previously cited literature, together with
the known fact that Sergeyev is a mathe-
matician who has published articles on the
application of information theory to
parapsychology (see, for example, Reference
15) is that the Sergeyev remote sensor does
exist and is an instrument for measuring
electric and magnetic fields generated by
a human subject at a distance of a few meters.
Because of background noise, sophisticated
analysis of the signal generated by the
Instrument is required to extract useful.
information. The Instrument is probably
a research tool and apparently has been
used with some success on subjects that
generate strong electric or magnetic fields
(e.g., Nina Kulagina). The coated disc in
a vessel of water is probably mostly a Russian
fairy tale if we discount the possibility
of an acoustic sensor; however, the mention
of water suggests that possibly magnetic
fields are detected with a proton resonance
magnetometer. Certainly water would be a
poor medium for detecting electric fields
because of its high dielectric constant.
The instrument probably comprises several
sets of electric and magnetic field detectors
arranged such that the noise due to extraneous
fields can be reduced by signal extraction
techniques.
In the fifth article, a set of non-
contacting electrodes used to measure changes
In the dielectric properties of the patient
is described. 16
It may well be that this
instrument is completely different from
the Sergeyev remote sensor. On the other
hand, these noncontacting electrodes may,
In fact, be the Sergeyev sensor and the
other published information may be a
complete fabrication.
If it is assumed that the described
sensor is different from the Sergeyev remote
sensor, it can be concluded that the instru-
ment comprises noncontacting electrodes
arranged electrically to sense small changes
In the dielectric constant of the human body.
The electrodes are silver, probably formed
by depositing silver on plates of barium
titanate. They are built Into a rubber
covering that Insulates them electrically
from the body and holds them in a fixed
geometric configuration with respect to a
portion of the body. The two terminals of
a high-voltage supply (e.g., a battery) are
connected to the two silver electrodes,
with a large resistance in serles with one
electrode. A change in the dielectric constant
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of the body causes a change in the capacitance
between the electrodes. The resulting flow
of charge either to or from the electrodes
produces a measurable potential difference
across the resistance. This potential
difference is amplified and constitutes the
output of the instrument.
The resistance or other details of the
signal conditioning and amplifying system
are not explicitly mentioned in the article.
Instead, the theory of the instrument based
on the bloplasma hypothesis is described,
as is the notion that there are maser effects
in living organisms which lead to the emission
of free electrons and protons, and thereby
to changes in the electrical properties of
the surrounding air .. An analysis also is
presented to show that the observed signal
is not due merely to the piezoelectric effect
in barium titanate.
The fact that barium titanate is used
to support the silver electrodes is irrelevant
to the operation of the sensor, but relevant
to the evaluation of the paucity of the report.
It is likely that silver-plated barium titanate
slabs happened to be available to the inves-
tigators. Because of its piezoelectric pro-
perties, barium titanate has a variety of uses
In military weapons and instruments, such as
hydrophones for underwater sound detection
and shock-actuated detonators for explosive
devices. As previously noted, Sergeyev works
in a military research and development laboratory
where barium titanate would be available.
It has been previously reported that much of
the Russian parapsychological work to which
we have access is done as an avocation by
the Investigators without official support
or sanction. In such circumstances, the use
of silver-plated barium titanate as an
Inexpensive and available substitute for
solid silver electrodes is understandable.
Other types of remote sensors mentioned
in the available literature seem quite simple
and conventional. For example, V. Puskin
(Pushkin) wrote about a sensor used to
demonstrate that the power shown by Alla
Vinogradova to move objects without touching
them was due to the electrostatic charges
induced on the objects. 17 The sensor in this
case was a simple neon glow lamp.
When the
object was discharged by means of the neon
lamp, it could no longer be moved.
A broader| question regarding remote
sensors is to determine or predict types of
sensors that logically would have been or
would be developed in the course of following
the indicated lines of investigation.
Perhaps the Russians have, in fact, developed
such instruments; perhaps they are going to
do so. Perhaps they have tried and have not
been successful. Possible sensor developments
discussed in the following paragraphs are not
meant to be exhaustive; rather, they are
speculative and offered as examples of what
may or might be.
A tunable antenna for detecting low-
frequency, very-low-frequency, or extremely
low-frequency electromagnetic radiation could
be used. The Russians believe both in mental
telepathy and in a prosalc physical mechanism
for it. The most probable mechanism is
electromagnetic radiation. A tunable antenna
could be used In two types of experiment:
trying to detect the radiation from the tele-
pathic agent and trying to generate radiation
of the right frequency to interfere with tele-
pathic reception.
A neutrino detector may be used. Both
the Russians Je. Parnov 18 and the American
Martin Ruderfer 19 have suggested neutrinos
as the means of transmitting thought from
one mind to another. One of the collaborators
in the present study, J. Eerkens, has a
plausible hypothesis about the production
and detection of neutrinos that could be
experimentally tested by relatively modest
expenditures for equipment and labor.
A magnetic field or field gradient
detector could be used. The Russians and
other Eastern Europeans are greatly Interested
in dowsing, or finding ground water. A
currently popular theory of dowsing is that
the human body is sensitive to small changes
(temporal or spatial ) in the magnetic field
of the earth, such as might be produced by
If
water near the surface of the ground.
the human body can generate as well as sense
magnetic fields, such human magnetism might
be the basis of some form of thought trans-
ference or psychokinesis. It is reported
that Nina Kulagina warms up her psychokinetic
powers by causing a compass needle to move; as
previously mentioned, Dr. Sergeyev claims
that Kulagina generates a pulsating magnetic
field not much weaker than the magnetic
field of the earth according to measurements
made with his remote sensor.
A noncontacting temperature detector
may be used. V. Adamenko and others have
shown Interest in the properties of human
skin in three separate lines of investigation.
First, Adamenko ascribes some electrostatic
properties to the skin to support his
theories about telekinesis. Second, hehas
developed a tobioscope for Investigating the
electrical properties of the acupuncture
points on the skin. Third, he has written
joint articles with the Kirlians about
photographing the skin with the Kirlian
apparatus.
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It seems natural that eventually he or
other workers in Russia will be curious about
other properties of skin, such as temperature.
Two American investigators, Barrett and Myers,
nave recently reported a technique of sub-
cutaneous temperature measurement by measuring
microwave radiation from the skin 20. One
night expect the Russians to develop remote
temperature monitors, either on their own or
by copying the American techniques. Such a
monitor would be a useful adjunct to a remote
lie detector, and its development would
probably be supported by the Military or the
Secret Police.
In addition to work on the development or
application of remote sensors, one can expect
the Russians to try to develop data processing
equipment to handle the signals from an
assembly of several sensors. In their pub-
lished work, the Russians have shown interest
in various types of correlation analysis.
For example, G. A. Sergeyev has published a
paper dealing with nonstationary random
functions and their application to para-
psychological phenomena 21. It would be
natural for Dr. Sergeyev (or others) to attempt
to mechanize his methods of statistical
analysis by a special-purpose electronic
signal processor. The difficulty may be
that the Russians are not very advanced in
electronics and would hesitate to develop
such a piece of equipment. Nevertheless,
it would seeem to be a logical next step.
SENSITIVITY OF HUMAN SUBJECTS TO
MAGNETIC FIELDS
An interesting facet of this
study is the fascination of Russian and
Czechoslovakian parapsychologists with the
effects of magnetic fields on human beings,
as well as the presumed ability of human
subjects to generate magnetic fields.
Presman presents a survey of the effects
of weak magnetic and electric fields on
living organisms, such as the ability of
birds to use the earth's magnetic field as
a cue in navigation 22. There is, in fact,
a respectable body of experimental evidence
in reports published both in Iron-Curtain
countries and in the West on the effects
of magnetic fields on the growth of plants,
the orientation of simple animals, and the
like. Presman is mainly interested In the
possibility that electric and magnetic
fields can be used by complex animals for
Information transfer. He theorizes that
humans have largely lost this ability
through evolutionary disuse following the
development of speech, a much more efficient
method of communication. Those few indi-
viduals who have the ability to communicate
by electromagnetic signaling are, in Presman's
view, evolutionary throwbacks.
There is some evidence that human subjects
can detect small changes in a magnetic field.
Harvalik reports that about 80 percent of
subjects tested were sensitive to magnetic
field changes in tests where the field was
generated by an ac or dc current passing
through damp ground23. Harval ik, a Czech-
American, proposes that dowsers are able to
sense changes in the earth's magnetic field
due to moisture in the ground. The sensing
organs are the muscles of the forearms. The
dowsing rod is an amplifying and indicating
device for the slight twitching of the muscles
responding to the changes in magnetic field
strength. Native Czech writers also are
fascinated with dowsing, as evidenced by
reports by the following authors cited in the
Annotated Bibliography prepared by Skaidrite
Maliks Fallah24: Boleslav and Boleslav,
p. 13; Brada, p. 14; Drbal and Rejdak, p. 19;
and Kaderavek, p. 36. It appears that the
paper presents actual experimental data.
Actual data on the sensitivity of humans to
weak magnetic fields are scarce, a situation
that should be remedied by research.
A related question to magnetic field
sensitivity is the ability of a human subject
to generate a detectable magnetic field.
Adamenko alleges that a Russian psychic
(Nina Kulagina) generates a pulsating magnetic
field when she is demonstrating telekinesis.
Belief in the existence of such an ability
is speculative at present. However, the
concept of volitional human generation of a
magnetic field is consistent with present
knowledge of physics and biology.
BIOPHYSICAL INFORMATION CARRIER MECHANISMS
In several papers, I. M. Kogan reports
experiments and hypotheses concerning telepathic
information, and describes information theory
aspects of the observed phenomenon; he devel -
oped rationale for transmission mechanisms.
Essentially, his thesis is that the energy
required is about 10-8 to 10-20 joules. He
hypothesizes that the transfer of information
is advanced by ultra-long electromagnetic
waves in the spherical waveguides formed by
the surface of the earth and the ionosphere.
In our opinion, the work of I. M. Kogan is
creditable and the best thought out of any
of the work reviewed.
Observing that experienced physicists
such as Kogan took serious notice of para-
psychology from 1966 to 1969 and that almost
nothing profound has appeared on the subject
In the Soviet literature in the last 5 yr
suggested that further theoretical and experi-
mental developments along the lines outlined
by Kogan are continuing underground in the
Soviet Union. Kogan posed too many interesting
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and challenging questions for himself and his
colleagues not to have delved into them further.
Based on the well-known predilection of Soviet
physicists to solve difficult and challenging
problems and their excellent training in
modern physics, the possibility that a team
of Soviet physicists is at work to system-
atically uncover and learn the physical
mechanisms of parapsychological events is
highly probable. Had Kogan not presented such
a clear and sound proposal 6 yr ago, one might
have wondered If Soviet physicists have any
interest at all In novel biophysical informa-
tion transfer (NBIT) mechanisms. Clearly,
if one could find out where Kogan is working
and what he is doing, this question would be
answered.
Assuming that the U.S.S.R. started a
special NBIT program some time in 1970, by
now they should have developed some sensitive
instruments to detect, monitor, and analyze
VLF and ELF radiations for possible informa-
tion content, as Kogan suggested should be
done. Also, they must have been instrumental
in developing sensors to monitor fluctuations
in the human body's electric and magnetic
fields, and they may have a team of scientists
studying the properties of bio-organic mole-
cules and their response to electromagnetic
ELF/VLF radiation. The Russians may now be
implementing the next logical step, namely to
reinforce, enhance, or ald NBIT in certain
trained or gifted individuals after having
discovered the basic communication carriers.
If experiments which generate special
ELF/VLF waves are being conducted, it may be
possible to intercept and analyze them
because they will travel across the world.
However, as discussed subsequently, these
manipulated VLF and ELF frequencies may be
very monochromatic and undetectable by the
usual relatively broad-band radio frequency
detectors. For example, it would be like
finding the red emission line of the 1-mw
Helium-Neon laser emitted from a satellite to
the earth and observed against a background
full of bright direct sunlight. With the
proper narrow-band filter, such a line can
be observed, of course, but the frequency
must be known.
It is rational to assume that the Soviets
pursued the investigation of various physical
methods that might serve as novel biophysical
information transmission mechanisms. Whether
or not ELV/VLF mechanisms explain parapsycho-
logical events may be a moot question If these
mechanisms can be utilized for human informa-
tion transfer. A review of possible NBIT trans-
mission mechanisms that are compatible with
current modern physics yields three schemes.
(1)
Very-low frequency (VLF) and
extremely low frequency (ELF)
electromagnetic waves
(2)
Neutrinos, based on the photon
theory of neutrinos
(3)
Quantum-mechanical (+) waves,
based on the schizo-physical
Interpretation of basic QM theory
Presently, most U.S. and Soviet experiments
on psychic phenomena and the use of the law
of parsimony would point to ELF/VLF mech-
anisms, but the other two possibilities cannot
be ruled out.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS
The bulk of the Soviet papers on para-
psychological events and novel biophysical
information transfer (NBIT) demonstrate not
only a poor understanding of physics, but also
generally fall to deal with psychological and
physiological processes that may underly NBIT.
No interdisciplinary approach that would help
alleviate these difficulties Is described in
the literature reviewed. For example,
Sergeyev measures the bioplasmagram (pre-
sumably, electrical or electro-static field)
associated with heart action and the bijoplasma-
gram associated with breathing. He states
that under certain conditions the heart action
and breathing can interfere with one another,
apparently by inductive interference. Our
guess is that he may not know exactly what he
is measuring and probably does not understand
the interaction of breathing rate and heart
rate. From his background in signal analysis,
he does know how to analyze the bioplasmagram.
Performance Training and Volitional Control
In the more creditable parameters reviewed
in this study, the Soviets indicate an interest
in volitional control of the phenomena observed.
For example, Adamenko Indicates that subjects
are trained by hypnosis or using biofeedback
procedures to control the conductance between
acupuncture points In the skin. In another
case, he refers to the use of self-induction,
self-suggestion, and bioelectric induction to
achieve the electromagnetic changes associated
with psychic phenomena.
His model for training in telekinesis is
volition effort that leads to changes in skin
conductivity that are simultaneous with tele-
kinsis. During training, the subjects learn
by volitional effort to charge a battery of
condensors; the charge is roughly proportional
to volitional effort. Once trained, the sub-
Jects can use a similar volitional effort to
electrostatically charge an object at a
distance. In describing what may be a current
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Soviet position in training, Adamenko further
states in his discussion on " .. Electrodynamics
and Psychoenergetics", " .. Production of special
states of consciousness and psychic training
at the level of psychoenergetics using modern
devices has just as great significance as the
investigation of the psychic field of physi-
cally talented individuals."
Another method of training in the litera-
ture reviewed on telepathy is described by
Milan Ryzl. Ryzi claims that approximately
10 percent of the 500 subjects he trained
demonstrated some ability as a consequence of
the training. The six principal stages of Ryzl
training procedure are outlined below:
(1) Orient subject and improve his
motivation.
(2)
Training In hypnosis -- increase
confidence of the subject, Increase
suggestability.
(3)
Attempts to induce visual halluci-
nation. Close off subjects to
Incoming stimuli other than hypno-
tists words. Perfect mastery and
consistency of visual hallucination.
Inhibit spontaneous mental processes.
(4)
Induction of extraordinary perception.
Simple assignments (simple discrimi-
nations). Suggestion is to be able
to see, with eyes closed, objects in
front of him; objects may be described
in detail to facilitate hallucination.
(5)
Training, including elaboration of
procedures, removal of errors,
training in use of skills, and
development of sense to discriminate
between correct and erroneous
psychics.
(6)
Auto-induction of the essential state
of mind; on the razors edge between
sleep and wakefulness.
Ryzi goes to great lengths to prevent the
occurrence of errors that are perceived by the
subject as a mistake that has been made. For
example, when the subject reads a license plate
of a car, "if the subject reads OE-6333
instead of CF-6888, we interpret the result
as successful and strengthen the subjects
compliance."
The training then may be characterized
as "shaped" reinforcement learning utilizing
hypnosis and the development of a special
state of consciousness. The training Is
extremely extensive and time consuming (3-hr
sessions, 3 times a week, over a period of
months). If nothing else, the training can
be conceived to be an elaborate screening
process during which subjects with insuffi-
cient talent and motivation are weeded out.
Ryzi's "essential state of mind" appears
to be a semi-hypnogogic state usually accom-
panying low-frequency @ and high-frequency 0
brain rhythms of . 7 to 5 Hz. Such a subject
state could be more quickly developed utilizing
biofeedback techniques.
In view of the high-reward-frequency/
no-failures-allowed aspects of the training
procedure, it is surprising that Ryzi only
claims that 10 percent of his subject popula-
tion demonstrates psychic ability as a conse-
quence of the training. Due to the dual
Russian Interest in both hypnosis and NBIT,
the Soviets have probably done a thorough
evaluation of Ryzi's procedure.
Hypnotizing Machines
The Russian Interest in hypnosis has
lead to many attempts at automating hypnosis.
Typical techniques are tape recordings, rotat-
Ing discs in the visual field, and application
of pulsating electrical current through the
head. The latest Soviet attempt in this area
is "LIDA" ( apparently an acronym for remote
control therapeutic apparatus); a U.S. patent
(No. '3,773,049, Nov. 1973) by Rachichev et.
al. has been issued for apparently the same
device.
This device, described by B. Belenkig,
197325; v. Rabichev, et. al., 197326; and
Bragen and Petrov, 19742 ; Is essentially
different embodiments of an apparatus that
subjects a patient to pulsating light, heat,
sound, or very-high-frequency, electro-
magnetic radiation (VHF EMR), simultaneous
or individually. The pulse repetition rates
(PRR) are programmable. It is uncertain to
the reviewer whether the pulse repetition rates
suggested in the patent, 10 to 100 Hz, can be
achieved for thermal sensations. At the correct
PRR, the device may be effective at least in
neuropsychiatric disorders.
Nowlis has demonstrated that certain
EEG biofeedback devices with PRR-like
visual feedback causes alpha entrainment
and enhancement, while Fehmi has demonstrated
the same for auditory EEG biofeedback. EEG
entrainment caused by strobe light sources
is, of course, a well-known phenomenon. The
range of PRR of the apparatus is 10 to 100 Hz.
Apparently the inputs made to the subject in
each sensory modality are synchronous and
directed to the recipients head or face.
The subjective consequences of the apparatus
are difficult to imagine, especially for
VHF EMR and thermal stimulation. The selection
of appropriate stimulus intensities and
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PRR are not described.
However, apparently
the training of the subjects involves gradually
lowering the PRR.
The Soviets claim numerous therapeutic
advantages of the LIDA apparatus as a conse-
quence of "inducing the desired biorhythm".
The "desired biorhythm" is unfortunately not
described in the literature available to us.
An alternative use of LIDA may be in
changing the subjective psychological state of
the subjects. For example, it is well known
to blofeedback therapists in this country that
EEG biofeedback promotes feelings of well
being, openness, and transference to the
therapist. One model for the use of LIDA to
achieve these effects without monitoring the
patient would be to gradually reduce the pulse
repetition rates from 15 to 6 Hz over the
course of 1 hr, thus entraining the indivi-
dual's o at some frequency and shaping it to
some lower frequency. The Soviets claim
that the effectiveness of LIDA Improves with
use (i.e., training) of the subject. Being
familiar with the subjective effects of bio-
feedback, it is still difficult to imagine
the subjective consequence of pulsed VHF EMR
either separately or In synchronous combination
with the other modulation.
In summary, the device Is considered
veridical with probable unique subjective
consequences. At lower PRR's, the subjective
experiences may correlate to those of EEG
biofeedback.
The R.F. Electromagnetic Radiation Hypothesis
L.L. Vasilyev describes Soviet attempts
starting in the 1930's to replicate the work of
F. Cazamalli, an Italian researcher of the 1920
to 1930 period.28 Cazamalli essentially assumed
that the human brain produced EMR in the
radio-frequency spectrum and claimed to have
measured the same. Vasilyev claims that the
Soviets conducted a systematic attempt to
replicate Cazamalli's work to no avail. In
the rest of the article (approximately 170
pages), he puts down the R.F. EMR hypothesis
(see, for example, pp. 110 and 160 to 171).
In reviewing Cazamalli's book El Cervanto
Radiante, not much was achieved in the way of
enlightenment if the report Is accepted from
Cazamalli's perspective. His idea was essen-
tially that people doing parapsychological
tricks would produce novel and systematic
RF EMR. If this hypothesis is ignored and
the consequences of the behavior of his sub-
jects are examined, there is some indication
that he might have been actually getting some-
thing of which he was not aware. For example,
ne indicates surprise that he received signals
of greater amplitude when his subjects didn't
try. He also Indicates that when there were
3 to 4 people in the shielded room with the
subject, there were no signals detected.
Another observation that he frequently made
was that physical activity of the subjects
reduced or eliminated the signals. Furthermore,
he reports that when "emoactive" tension is
discharged through motor, vascular, and glan-
dular expression (passionate reactions, flush-
ing of the face, cries, walls), the phenomenon
of radiation stops abruptly."
Based on Cazamalli's behavioral descrip-
tion of his subject, there may have been a
negative correlation between the level of
cortical arousal of his subject and the
occurrence of whatever he was measuring with
his primitive RF antenna and receivers. If
this is indeed the case, his primitive
apparatus may have, in some way, detected the
higher cortical voltage of his resting sub-
jects or changes in their electromyographic
levels. Consequently, Vasilyev's effort to
discredit Cazamalli could possibly be disin-
formation, although such a position would be
difficult to defend.
Psychotronics
At this writing, the only available
source of Information about psychotronics is
the Annotated Bibliography (AB) 24.
The intro-
duction to the Annotated Bibliography states
merely that the terms psychotronics, psycho-
energetics, and parapsychology are used to
denote the same field of investigation by the
Czechs, the Russians, and the Anglo-Saxons,
respectively. It is reported that in
Czechoslovakia, psychotronics is an officially
recognized branch of science. There is a
conflict between the emphasis suggested by
the word Itself and the brief descriptions
presented in AB.
The term itself suggests a blend of the
concepts embraced by psychology and electronics.
In many portmanteau words of this type, the
suffix -tronics suggests electrical or elec-
tronic instrumentation techniques applied to
experimental investigations in the field. One
might conclude from the form of the word alone
that the field of psychotronics is visualized
as comprising elements of psychology combined
with sophisticated instrumentation techniques
to discover new and useful properties of the
human mind and central nervous system.
The AB presents a somewhat different
view. The introduction, as noted above,
states that psychotronics is the Czech word
for parapsychology. An abstract on page 66
states that psychotronics embraces telepathy,
telegnosis, rhabdomancy, psychokinesis, cosmic
biology, and biological radiation.
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Perhaps there is some truth in both views.
The Czechs have published serious papers on
dowsing, or finding water by means of a
divining rod. For example, Branda (AF, p. 14)
presented a paper in Prague in 1973 relating
dowsing to electromagnetism, myotransfer,
electromyography, and the effect and influence
of the seasons on these paranormal phenomena.
Drbal and Rejdak (AB, p. 19) have written a
paper on "divining, dowsing, and readies-
thesia."
Perhaps the most Informative abstract on
the theory of dowsing is that of Z. V. Harval ik,
a Czech-American. Dr. Harvalik points out that
the human body can respond to minute changes in
magnetic field. It is suggested that ground
water distorts the local terrestrial magnetic
field and that successful dowsers exploit this
effect. The dowsing rod, held loosely in the
hands, is merely a mechanical amplifier of a
slight reaction of the forearm muscles to the
changing magnetic field. (AB, pp. 25 to 26.)
Mirko Kaderavek (AB, p. 36) also has a paper
on dowsing rod reactions.
There appears to be a bias in the AB
toward the occult and paranormal view of
psychotronics and away from the physical and
instrumental view. Short shrift is given in
the abstracts to papers that describe reason-
ably good experiments. The work reported by
Harvalik occupies about a third of a page.
The paper of Kaderavek rates only a few lines.
However, a paper by Miloslav Loucka about a
nodel of telepathic communication, which looks
like pure fantasy, rates about one and two-
thirds pages. The compilers of AB seem to
want to believe in the occult, the mysterious,
and the unexplainable. Experimental attempts
to provide rational explanations for certain
phenomena classified as parapsychological
receive little space. The paper by Loucka
reveals the attitude of many Czech scientists
about psychotronics. Loucka postulates the
existence of an information field as the
carrier of telepathic information. Loucka
considers that the same field provides the
explanation of telekinesis; this is in
contrast to the work of Adamenko and other
Russians, who claim that telekinesis is a
manifestation of the electrostatic field.
To summarize the field of psychotronics,
from the point of view of its practitioners,
the following can be postulated:
(1)
Mental telepathy, clairvoyance,
telekinesis, and telegnosis are
real. There Is a lack of unambiguous
experimental evidence concerning
these phenomena; this lack must be
remedied.
(2)
These phenomena do not conflict with
physics and other sciences. In so
far as possible, physical explanations
will be sought for these phenomena.
(3)
Existing theories of physics are not
adequate to explain all psychotronic
phenomena. Therefore, there must
exist some new physical principles
to be discovered or elucidated.
In short, the theoretical basis of psycho-
tronics is substantially the same as that
advanced for parapsychology in this country.
Bioplasma
The appropriate starting point for this
discussion is to try to define or explain what
is meant by the term bioplasma. In origin, the
concept seems to be analogous to the "aura" of
the Western parapsychologists. The Western
concept is an old one, dating from the pre-
scientific age ("The Age of Faith") when the
soul or spiritual body of a human being was
thought to be as real as the physical body.
The aura was an emanation or radlation from
the spiritual body.
Saints in old paintings
are depicted with halos or auras. Modern
Western psychics still believe in the aura
and in the ability of gifted individuals to
see it.
However, the Eastern (Bloc) term bio-
plasma, although used in a confusing fashion,
appears to be frequently a generic term for
all radiant phenomena associated with a
living body (e.g., thermal, electrical,
magnetic, electrostatic). Viktor Adamenko
has used the bloplasma concept as supported
by theoretical and empirical considerations.
However, in his later papers, he does not
mention bloplasma, but instead writes about
the psi field, the biological electric field,
and so forth. The strongest theoretical
arguments for bioplasma seem to come from
G.A. Sergeyev 29. For Sergeyev, the bioplasma-
gram is a low-frequency electrostatic field.
The Russians assert correctly that
plasma is a fourth state (or phase) of matter.
Confusingly, Sergeyev and other Russian
parapsychologists aver that living organisms
generate a plasma that surrounds them. They
get around the physical difficulties of
maintaining a plasma at temperature and
pressure conditions compatible with life by
the hypothesis that living matter obeys
physical laws different from those for
inanimate matter.
The classical physical objections to the
bioplasma concept are summarized below. A
plasma is a state of matter similar to a gas
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in which a large fraction of the molecules or
atoms are ionized. A plasma can exist at high
temperatures or at very low densities. At high
temperatures, the individual particles have
enough kinetic energy that ionization can result
from collisions; the plasma Is maintained by
virtue of the high rate of production of ions,
which balances the recombination rate. At low
pressures or densities, the rate of lonization
need not be high because the recombination
rate, which depends on the rate of collision of
lons with each other, is low. A physical plasma
consists of approximately equal numbers of
positive and negative ions. Electrostatic
attraction between the bodies of positively
and negatively charged matter holds the plasma
together, in a sense. The plasma can absorb
and lose energy by electromagnetic radiation.
A means of detecting the presence or absence
of plasma is to look for the characteristic
emission or absorption of radiation. If the
Russians take the bioplasma concept seriously,
they will probably try to detect it by virtue
of these radiation characteristics. At tem-
perature and pressure conditions consistent
with the maintenance of life, a classical
plasma cannot exist.
The Russians must have done significant
work in plasma physics as part of their program
of developing nuclear weapons. This technology
would be applied to a study of bioplasma. For
several reasons, such studies probably would
have been done secretly. First, the Russians
might not wish to reveal their full capabili-
ties in plasma physics. Second, not every
Russian scientist Is a parapsychologist and
would not want to experience the expected
ridicule for such a frivolous use of plasma
physics terminology. Thus, in the available
papers on Soviet parapsychology, the theory
of bioplasma remains vague and unclear and
at best is an attempt to employ analogous
terminology from physics to NBIT.
SPECULATION OF THE NATURE OF SOVIET
LABORATORIES INVESTIGATING NBTT
Available published reports are contra-
dictory or inconclusive regarding whether (and
to what extent) the Soviet government actively
supports Investigative or speculative work in
the field of NBIT, parapsychology, or psycho-
energetics. It appears that some of the older
work in the field, before the middle 1960's,
was sponsored by the government. More recently,
there is conflicting evidence as to whether
the field has fallen into official disfavor,
with the result that most published work has
been done without specific funding or authoriza-
tion. In Russia, scientific research work is
done mostly in institutes. Each institute is
presided over by a senior scientist or acade-
mician. Apparently in the Russian system, the
presiding scientist of an institute has a great
deal of freedom and independence from bureau-
cratic dictation as to the kind of work under-
taken. This reviewer has seen nothing about
the organization of scientific work conducted
by Russian military organizations. One must
presume that the organization parallels the
civilian institute, with a military officer in
charge, assisted by a chief scientist.
Parapsychological investigations in the
Soviet Union are probably conducted in two
types of circumstance: first, work that is
not officially sanctioned or funded by the
Russian government; and second, work that is
ʻ
officially supported and is conducted in a
military research laboratory or In a laboratory
that is an adjunct to another institution.
In the first type of circumstances, the
Investigators themselves are employed In
research institutes to do other types of work.
Their work on parapsychology is conducted on
the side, perhaps on their own time. Where
possible, they employ the facilities of the
institutes in which they work. For example,
a shielded room used for testing electronic
apparatus also may be used for subjects and
Investigators in mental telepathy experiments.
Special test equipment has to be borrowed or
bootlegged from other projects in the institute,
built on their own time, or purchased with
money contributed by the investigators them-
selves. The results of such work seem to be
published in the unclassified literature.
Apparently, official government disapproval
of such work does not preclude publication of
results. As an Indication of this condition
(as previously mentioned), barium titanate
slabs coated with silver may have been
used as electrodes because pure silver was
not readily available.
In the second type of circumstance,
government approval of the work seems to
imply the Intent to use the results to the
advantage of the military or the secret
police. The officially sanctioned work, if
there Is any, seems to be classified. The
laboratory Itself would be camouflaged. It
would probably be part of another organization,
such as a military research laboratory or a
psychiatric hospital. In any event, the camou-
flage would be fairly difficult to penetrate,
since a parapsychological laboratory would not
have unusual requirements for electrical power,
material supplies, or test equipment. The
staff would probably consist of psychologists,
biologists, physicists, electrical engineers,
mathematicians, technicians, and some "gifted"
subjects.
Much of the work of Vasilyev was
conducted with subjects who had psycho-
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logical or psychiatric problems. It would thus
be logical to locate the secret parapsycho-
logical laboratory in a mental hospital. It
is reported that the Russians tend to sentence
political deviates to mental hospitals rather
than prisons. It might be possible to learn
from interviewing political deviates and other
patients who have been released from Russian
mental hospitals.
CONCLUSIONS
From the review of essentially open
Soviet literature, the following conclusions
are made:
(1)
The Soviets have done significant
work on signal extraction, statis-
tical, and information theory
approaches to novel biophysical
information transfer mechanisms.
(2)
The Soviets have done creditable
work on the electrostatics of
telekinesis and have probably now
turned their attention to the
psychophysiological aspects of the
phenomenon .
(3)
The Soviets have an interest in
remote physiological monitors, have
developed one or two new Instruments,
and are probably involved in R&D in
this area.
(4)
The Soviets had and probably still
have an interest in the physics of
NBIT transmission mechanisms and are
probably doing research in this area.
(5)
There is a developing interest in
the Soviet Bloc to apply psycho-
physiological training methods
(similar to biofeedback) to develop
control over NBIT mechanisms.
(6)
All the Soviet research that has been
reviewed suffers from the lack of
an interdisciplinary approach.
(7)
The Soviets are Investigating the
psychophysiology of multimodal,
programmed stimulation as a method
to entrain physiological rhythms and
produce changes in states of con-
sciousness.
(8)
A systematic, interdisciplinary
approach to NBIT by the Soviets would
require only a modest commitment of
resources. A small number of key
personnel with an adequate supporting
staff of engineers and technicians
could make substantial headway in
this area. At this stage, in our
opinion no unique technological
breakthrough is required -- only care-
ful Investigation. In addition, no
unique features such as physical
plant, facilities, services, or
equipment would specifically identify
an NBIT R&D laboratory from other
types of laboratories.
These conclusions are drawn in spite of
the fact that most of the published material
we have reviewed is confusing, Inaccurate,
and of little value from a scientific point
of view. In this respect, the review team
may have erred in the direction of trying to
make too much sense from a small data base.
REFERENCES
1.
Ryzl, Milan, 1968, "Parapsychology in
Communist Countries of Europe, "
International J. of Parapsychology,
Vol. 10, No. 3, p. 263.
2.
Kogan, I.M., 1969, "The Information
Theory Input of Telepathy," from UCLA
symposium entitled "A New Look at ESP".
3.
Sergeyev, G.A., "Principles of Spectral
Analysis of Bioplasmagrams During
Emotional Stress", Kontrol Sostoyaniya
Cheloveka-Operator, 1970, p. 18.
4.
Sergeyev, G.A., "Some Methodological
Problems in Parapsy," Telepatie a
Jasnovidnost, 1970, p. 79.
5.
Mutshall, Vladimir, "The Present State
of Research in Telepathy in the Soviet
Union.
6.
Targ, Russell, and Harold Puthoff,
Information Transmission under Conditions
of Sensory Shielding," Nature, 251, 1974.
7.
Adamenko, V.G., "Some Problems of Bio-
logical Electrodynamics and Psycho-
energetics," Nekotoryve Vop Biol Eleki
Psikh, Moscow, Russian, pp. 27 to 29.
8.
Adamenko, V.G., "Some Problems of Bio-
logical Electrodynamics and Psycho-
energetics," Certain Problems of Bio-
logical Electrodynamics and Psycho-
energetics, Moscow, Russian, pp. 22 to 29.
9.
Cohen, D., Science, Vol. 161, pp. 784 to
786.
10.
Ostrander and Schroeder, Psychic Dis-
coveries Behind the Iron Curtain,
Prentice Hall, 1970, p. 20.
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11. Ostrander and Schroeder, Psychic Dis-
coveries Behind the Iron Curtain,
Prentice Hall, 1970, pp 73 to 74.
-
12.
Kongro, A., "Emotion Detector Experiments,"
Znaniye Sila, No. 7, Moscow, Russian, 1972,
pp. 29 to 36.
13.
Sergeyev, G.A., "Detection of Telekinesis
by Semi-Conductors," Abstract from
Telepatie A Janovidnost, Translated by
T. Waskova.
14.
Sergeyev, G.A., Shushkov*, G.D., and
E.G. Griasnuhin," Bioenergetics Questions
(Material of the Scientific Methodological
Seminar in Alma-Ata), Dombrovsky, B.A.,
Sergeyev, G.A., and B.M. Inyushin, editors,
Southern California Society of Psychical
Research, Inc., 1972, pp. 17-1 to 17-4.
15.
Sergeyev, G.A., "Some Methodological
Problems of Parapsychology," Telepatie A
Jasnovidnost, Prague, 1970, pp. 79 to 87.
Also in Translations on Czechoslovakia,
GVO No. 772, JPRS L/4922, U.S. Joint
Publications Research Service, June 3,
1974, pp. 1 to 13.
16.
Sergeyev, G.A., Shushkov, G.D., and
E.G. Griasnuhin, "A New Detector for
Registering the Physiological Functions
of the Organism," Bioenergetics Questions
(Material of the Scientific Methodological
Seminar in Alma-Ata), Dombrovsky, B.A.,
Sergeyev, G.A., and B.M. Inyushin, editors,
Southern California Society for Psychical
Research, Inc., 1972, pp. 18-1 to 18-2.
17.
Pushkin, V.N., "Knowledge-Strength,
Znani je-Sila, No. 10, 1972, pp. 4 to 49.
18.
Parnov, Je., Nauka i Religija, No. 3,
1966, pp. 48, to 49.
19.
Ruderfer, Martin, "Neutrino Theory of
Extrasensory Perception," Abstracts:
1st International Conference on Psycho-
tronics, Vol. 2, Prague, June 1973,
-
pp. 9 to 13.
*Also referenced as Suskov in the literature.
20.
Barrett and Myers, Science, Vol. 190,
Nov. 14, 1975, pp. 669 fo 671.
21.
Sergeyev, G.A., Telepatie a Jasnovidnost,
Prague, Czechoslovakia, 1970, pp. 79 to 87.
22.
Presman, A.S., "Electromagnetic Signaling
in Animate Nature," Moscow, 1974.
23.
Harvalik, Z.V., "A Biophysical Magneto-
meter-Gradiometer," Virginia Jour. Sci.,
Vol. 21, No. 2, 1970, pp. 59 fo 60. :
24.
Fullah, S.M., Selective Psychoenergetic
Activities -- Annotated Bibliography,
prepared for Dept. of the Army, Contract
DAAK0273-M-4729, MRU, Task No. 106,
July 1973.
25.
Belenkig, B., "LIDA Apparatus for
Biorhythmological Studies," Sovetskaya
Moldaviya, Russian, No. 8, December
1973, p. 4.
26.
Rabichev, L.Y., et. al., Apparatus for
the Treatment of Neuropsychic and Somatic
Diseases with Heat, Light, Sound, and
VHF Electromagnetic Radiation," U.S.
Patent No. 3,773,049, November 20, 1973.
27.
Bragin, V., and P. Petrov, "Hypnotizing
Machines," Nauka I. Religiya, No. 6,
1974, pp. 34 to 35.
28.
Vasil'yev, L.L., Experimental Studies
of Mental Suggestion, JPRS 59,163,
Joint Publications Research Service,
May 1973.
29.
Sergeyev, G.A., and V.V. Kulagin, "The
Interaction of Bioplasmic Fields of
Living Organisms with Light Photon
Sources, " Bioenergetics Questions
(Material of the Scientific Methodo-
logical Seminar in Alma-Ata), Dombrovsky,
3.A., Sergeyev, G.A., and B.M. Inyushin,
editors, Southern California Society for
Psychical Research, Inc., 1972, pp. 14-1
to 14-2.
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IMPROVING REAL TIME ESP BY SUPPRESSING THE FUTURE :
TRANS-TEMPORAL INHIBITION
Charles T. Tart
University of California, Davis, CA 95616
SUMMARY
During retrospective analysis of the data
of a highly successful experiment on teaching
real time ESP ability through the provision of
immediate feedback of results, extremely strong,
below chance missing of the immediately future
target was found, a precognitive ESP effect. This
avoidance of the future was highly correlated
with the magnitude of the real time ESP used:
the more real time ESP hitting, the more the im-
mediate future was avoided. These results are
consistent with a theory of another dimension of
the mind, the duration of whose "experienced
present" includes times which, to ordinary con-
sciousness, are past and future. Tapping into
this other mental dimension is not useful for
using real time ESP per se, for past and future
information constitute noise. Trans-temporal
inhibition, a type of edge detection process ex-
tending over time, enhances detection of the
desired real time ESP information by actively
suppressing the ESP derived information about
the immediate past and future (postcognition and
precognition). Application of this theory allows
calculation of the degree to which percipients
are strategy-bound, applying maladaptive guess-
ing strategies instead of trying to detect rele-
vant ESP signals. An initial experimental test
of one of the implications of the theory, shift-
ing of the areas of inhibition by change of
psychological focus, further supports the theory.
A relatively universal information sharpening
technique thus seems to be employed in using
ESP.
One of the major problems that undermines
efficient functional study of the nature of
extrasensory perception (ESP) is the unreli-
ability, overall low level of manifestation, and
prevalence of decline effects when ESP is studied
in the laboratory. In the vast majority of exper-
iments, even when ESP is present to a statistic-
ally significant degree, the vast majority of
responses made by percipients are simply
guesses, and only a very tiny fraction of them
are ESP: the signal to noise ratio is very poor,
making study of the characteristics of the signal
difficult. As percipients continue to work at
ESP tasks, it is very common for them to decline
in performance and eventually be reduced to mere
chance guessing.
V
Ten years ago3 I theorized
that this was due to lack of immediate feedback
to percipients, so they could not learn to dis-
tinguish subtle characteristics of mental events
that indicated when they were generally using
ESP from mere guessing processes. This theory
has recently been elaborated.4
Two major studies have now been carried
out in my laboratory, one already published5
and the secondo being prepared for publication,
that strongly support the hypotheses that: (1)
the provision of immediate feedback to percipi-
ents with some ESP talent at the start of
training can slow down or eliminate the common
decline effect (stabilize performance); (2)
can allow some percipients to learn; and (3)
the degree of learning (improving performance)
in the feedback situation is directly propor-
tional to the ESP level a given percipient
initially brings to the training sessions.
These developments suggest that efficient
functional studies may soon be possible.
In the course of post hoc analysis of
the first Training Study, some remarkably strong
effects produced by precognition, ESP cognition
of immediately future events, were discovered,
and confirmed in subsequent analysis of the
second Training Study data. These precognitive
effects, and their theoretical implications
for an information processing mechanism used
for enhancing real time ESP, named trans-
temporal inhibition, will be the focus of this
paper. The data on learning ESP per se are
available elsewhere, 5,º and will not be dis-
cussed further here except when they are
relevant to the main focus.
OVERVIEW OF THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Figure 1 provides an overview of the
general procedure of each of the two studies.
Since the learning theory predicted that per-
cipients had to have some demonstrable ESP to
begin with for feedback training to have much
effect, it was necessary to start with rela-
tively talented percipients. Since percipients
who can demonstrate individually significant
ESP in a short period of testing were assumed
to be relatively rare, a two-stage selection
procedure proceeded the actual Training Study.
In the first stage, teams of experimenters
gave quick ESP card guessing tests to large
classes of UC Davis students. Students who
showed individually significant ESP hitting
were selected from these results.
In screening hundreds of students a
certain number were bound to score at least
at the .05 level of significance by chance
alone, so those selected students who
accepted our invitation to participate in the
second stage Confirmation Study were given
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=
SELECTION
STUDY
Screen large groups of students and some
individuals with 2 quick card guessing
tests. score for each individual.
Invito to Confirmation Study If subject
hits at ,05 fevet or better or, by experi-
Renter's judgement, subject shows
special premise in spite of low score
Intermal judgement by experi-
masters thal individuals pos-
sess ESP ability
CONFIRMATION
STUDY
--
Give each subject 2 mmms en Aquarius;
2 mas en TCT, 2 more mins en trainer
of subject's choice, to verity ESP
ability.
lovite to Training Study If subject
continues to hit at .05 lovel er
better or, In experimenter's judg-
cont, shows special premise
TRAINING
STUDY
Each subject does 20 ruins of 25
trials each with lediste food-
back, using the one training
machine of kis cheics
Evaluate Results
Fig. 1.
Sequential selection procedure in
the two Training Studies.
six individual test runs of 25 trials each. Two
were on the ten-choice trainer (described below),
two were on the Aquarius Model 1000 ESP trainer,
a four-choice machine, and two more on whichever
of the two machines each student preferred to do
two more runs on. Since it would be highly un-
likely that a student who made the criterion in
the Selection Study by chance alone would also
make the criterion of individual significance
in the Confirmation Study (2.05/ x 2.057 =
.0025), we assumed that almost all students who
scored significantly in both studies probably
had genuine ESP talent, and they were invited to
the Training | Study.
A few students went directly into the Con-
firmation Study without going through the Selec-
tion Study because individual experimenters had
other reasons to suspect they might have demon-
strable ESP ability.
We will deal only with data from the ten-
choice trainer (TCT) in both the Training Studies
in this paper, as individual trial data was not
recorded for the Aquarius four-choice trainer in
the first study. Ten student percipeints com-
pleted the first Training Study and seven new
percipients completed the second Training Study.
"Completed" means doing 20 runs of 25 trials
each on the TCT, over several sessions, our a
priori criterion. Results in this paper deal
with Training Study data.
THE TEN-CHOICE TRAINER
The TCT consisted of a percipient's and
experimenter/sender's console. The two consoles
were located in separate rooms, as shown in
Figure 2. The percipient or "receiver" was alone
in the laboratory room shown in the lower left-
hand corner of Figure 2, sitting in front of his
MCEMI
AQUARIUS
MONITOR
SINDER
TY CAMERA
TARGET MONITO
11 #
Fig. 2. Arrangement of the experimental
laboratories.
console. A TV camera was focused on the console.
The experimenter/sender was inside a Faraday
cage constructed of thin copper sheets soldered
together over an otherwise ordinarily constructed
room, and this Faraday cage was inside another
room, across the hall from the percipient's
room. The shielding of the Faraday cage was not
intact, however, due to power cables and the
TV monitor and TCT interconnecting cables. The
laboratory arrangement for the Aquarius 4-choice
trainer are also shown, although I shall not
deal with data from that trainer in this paper.
Figure 3 is a diagram of the arrange-
ment of the percipients' console. It had ten
unlit lamps arranged in a circle about 15
inches in diameter, with a miniature playing
card glued beside each lamp to numerically
identify them. A response push button was
located beside each lamp. When the Ready lamp
in the center of the console came on, the
percipient knew that the experimenter/sender
had selected (in accordance with the output of
a random number generator, to be described
later) one of the ten lamps as a target, and
was trying to telepathically "send" the
identity of that target to him.
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13
O
O
0
500
O.
O
0
9
O
O
Fig. 3. Layout of the percipient's
(receiver's) TCT (ten-choice
trainer) console. Target #4 is
shown as lit, indicating it was the
correct target for whatever the
percipient's response was.
The percipient could respond quickly or take
as much time as he wished to make his decision.
When he had decided on which number he though the
target was, he pushed the response button beside
it: electrical circuitry immediately scored his
response as a hit or miss, and lighted the lamp
on the percipient's console which corresponded to
the correct target, so the percipient had
immediate feedback on whether he was right or
wrong. When he was right a chime rang inside his
console, as well as the correct light coming on.
If, on a given trail, a percipient felt he
had no idea what the target was, he could push
the Pass switch, signalling to the experimenter/
sender that he would like a new target. A pass
was not counted as a hit or miss, and no feedback
on correct target identity was given. Percipients
rarely used the pass option. A circuit diagram
of the TCT is available elsewhere5.
Figure 4 is a drawing of the experimenter/
sender's console and the TV monitor mounted above
it. Except for operating controls, such as power
switches, this console was laid out identically
to the percipient's console.
In pilot work with the TCT, my students and
I found that many percipients would slowly run
their hand around the circle of unlit lamps,
trying to get some kind of "impression" as to
when they were over the correct lamp. The TCT
was designed so no electrical or physical differ-
ences of any sort existed5, so, on the null
hypothesis of no ESP, this was an irrelevant
procedure. Because of this, however, we had a TV
camera focused on the percipient's hand movements
so the sender could tell when the percipient was
"hot" or "cold," and so could intensify,
diminish or modify his sending effort accordingly.
C
0
Fig. 4. Layout of the experimenter/
sender's TCT console. Target
#3 has been selected and the
experimenter, watching the
image of the percipient's hand
movements on the TV monitor, is
trying to "send" the percipient
a telepathic message to "Go
back!" since the percipient has
just moved his hand past the
correct #3 target to the #2
target.
The experimenter/senders found this full feed-
back of ongoing process to sender to be extremely
involving, and I think it is quite important,
although I have not assessed its effect inde-
pendently. In terms of training people to use
ESP, we were actually training each experimenter/
sender and percipient as a team, with full feed-
back to each.
Electrical counters on the TCT automatic-
ally recorded the number of trials and the
number of hits. Runs were standardized at 25
trials. If, as rarely happened, the pass option
was used, additional trials were given so the
total of scored trials was 25. On other rare
occasions, when an experimenter accidentally
ran one or two more trials than 25, all data
beyond 25 trials were deleted.
RANDOM NUMBER GENERATOR
Target selection was controlled by an
electronic random number generator (RNG). This
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was of the "electronic roulett wheel" type, with
one megahertz clock cycling a zero to nine counter
over and over again. The length of time the clock
was connected to the counter was controlled by the
experimenter/sender manually depressing a push
button. Since controlable human reaction time is
several orders of magnitude slower than the clock
speed, which output from zero to nine is selected
is a random event. The circuit of the RNG,
designed by Dana Redington, is shown in Figure 5.
automatically on both machines.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOCUS ON REAL TIME EVENTS
In both Training Studies, neither I,
my experimenters, nor the percipients had any
interest in precognition. Our conception of the
experiment was that we were trying to train
real time ESP, either clairvoyance (direct
perception of the state of the TCT) or
+5.5
2200 pf
1
1
2
3
5
6
222
7404
7404
7404
-
1
14
1
1
16
2
13
2
15 F
3
12
3
14 G
4
11
4
13 A
7490
10
1
5
9317/
7447
12 B
6
9
6
11 C
7
8
7
10 D
9 1
8
7404
3
7400-1
2
TARGET SELECT
COUNTER 0-9
TARGET DISPLAY
Fig. 5.
Circuit of the random number generator (RNG) used to generate targets for the TCT.
Integrated circuits are Signetics types 7404, 7400, 7447, and 7490. Seven segment
display is a Litronix Data Lite 10.
Empirical tests, using a Chi-square analysis for
equal incidence of individual targets and equal
incidence of all 100 possible pairs of target
selections, on 1000 trial test blocks collected
before and after the first Training Study, showed
satisfactory randomicity. We did not test for
even higher level possible sequential effects
(triplets, quadruplets, etc. ) as there is no
theoretical reason to expect any sequential ef-
fects with this type of RNG.
The TCT was used to gather the data in the
first Training Study. We replaced it in the
second Training Study with a more sophisticated
and somewhat more automated version, ADEPT
(Advanced Decimal Extrasensory Perception
Trainer), designed and constructed by Dana
Redington7, which was similar to the TCT except
for the fact that individual trial data was re-
corded automatically by teletypewriter, and the
RNG was internal to the machine, whereas with
the TCT the individual trial. data was recorded
by hand and the RNG was external to the machine.
Total trials and total hits were both recorded
telepathic (perception of the experimenter/
sender's knowledge of the correct target)
transmission of ESP information. This psycho-
logical focus is important to note, in light
of later results.
Figure 6 illustrates the temporal aspects
of target generation. Given that a target had
already been generated and the TCT activated
(Ready light comes on on the percipient's
console) for trial N, a percipient would take a
variable period of time, from a second or two
to sometimes minutes, to decide on what he
VARIABLE
THE
INTERVAL
BEGINNING
RESPONDE
LECORD
DATA
TRIGGER
RANDOM
NUMBER
GENERATOR
NEXT
TARGET
~ TRIAL N
4- TRIAL N+1
Fig. 6.
Temporal sequence of target
generations.
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9 E
Data Lite 10
CLOCK f = 3 - 5 MHz.
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thought the target was. He would then push a
response button, giving himself feedback and
lighting a target lamp on the experimenter/
sender's console showing what the percipient's
response had been. The experimenter/sender re-
corded the response on his record sheet (the target
had already been noted), turned off the TCT, and
then triggered the RNG to select the next random
number. When this selection had been made, in a
second or so, he switched on the target lamp for
trial N + 1.
During the time that a percipient was trying
to use ESP to determine what the current, real
time target was, then, the target for the next
trial had not yet come into existence, nor
could it be inferred from any knowledge of cur-
rent events. The RNG had not yet been activated.
Any significant information about the future
targets, then, would have to be due to precog-
nition.
SCORING RESPONSES
For evaluating the presence of ESP and sub-
sequent analysis of learning effects, we were
interested in real time hits, and all scoring
was done for such hits. The top third of Figure
7 shows data from an actual run from percipient
E155. The top row shows the 25 targets that were
sequentially generated, the second row the
percipient's response to each one. Real time hits
are circled. There were six of them for this
particular run. This happened to be an individually
significant run, as the exact 1-tailed binomial
probability of 6 or more hits in 25 trials
(with a P of .1) is 3 in 100.
E1S5, Run #3
Targets
3 7 56
Responses 4 8 ; ] 7 3 6 0 7 8 3 7 4 8 61
7 5 1 7 2 8 3 9 5 7 4 5 6 9
9 4 3 8 5
2 5 0 6 4
REGISTER SHIFT FOR +1 TEMPORAL DISPLACEMENT #TRIALS = 24
Targets 3 7 5 2 7 9 6 0 7 8 3 7 4 8 5 1 4 9 0 7 9 4 3 8 5
Responses 4 8 5 2 4 9 7 5 1 7 2 8 3 9 5 7 4 5 6 7 2 5 0 6 4
REGISTER SHIFT FOR -1 TEMPORAL DISPLACEMENT #TRIALS - 24
Targets 3 7 5 2 7 9 6 0
Responses 4 8 5 2 4 9 7 5 1 7 2 8 3 9 5 7 4 5 6 7 2 5 0 6 4
837
4
8 5
1 4 9 0 7 9 4 3 8 5
Fig. 7.
Target and response sequences for
percipient E155, third run, illus-
trating scoring techniques for real
time hits, +1 precognitive hits,
and -1 postcognitive hits.
Although I knew that it was relatively
routine in parapsychological experiments to check
for possible precognitive effects, I personally
had no real interest in them, and had not gotten
around to such checking until some analyses for
another purpose by a colleague in the Genetics
Department, Lila Gatlin, suggested to me that
there were important precognitive effects worth
looking at. The computer was reprogrammed to do
temporal displacement analyses then, in the
style shown in the middle and lower thirds of
Figure 7.
To see if a response given by a percipient
at time N was a hit or a miss on the target at
trial N +1, the +1 temporal displacement, the
response register was uniformly shifted one
position forward in time. In the example shown,
there were no hits with this procedure. N is
reduced to 24 for such a shift, as the last
response has no future target to be scored
against.
To look at -1 past temporal displacement,
as shown in the bottom third of the figure, the
response register is shifted uniformly back-
wards one position. In this case there was 1
hit by this procedure. N is again reduced to 24.
A similar procedure allows looking at any
temporal displacement, forward (+1 through +24)
or back (-1 through -24).
In looking at possible hits displaced
forward in time, any significant deviations
from chance expectation must be due to some
kind of precognitive ESP, for, as discussed
earlier, these targets did not yet exist and
could not be predicted from any knowledge
(sensory or extrasensory) of current events. In
looking at temporal shifts backwards, my
immediate reaction was to believe these would
indicate something about ordinary psychological
processes in the percipient: because of the
immediate feedback of results, percipients knew
what the immediately past target had been (to
the extent that they had not forgotten it).
The situation may be more complex than that for
past displacements, however, as we shall see
later.
ESP MISSING
An interesting effect that has been reported
in many dozens of published ESP experiments8,9
is what is called ESP-missing (or psi-missing),
scoring that is significantly below chance
expectation. Scoring below chance expectation
can indicate as much ESP is operating as
scoring above chance expectation can. If you are
guessing whether the cards in an ordinary deck
are red or black, for example, getting zero
right is just as significant as getting all 52
right.
In terms of a model underlying the process,
some non-conscious part of the mind must use
ESP to correctly identify certain targets, and
then influence conscious guessing processes to
make sure that these targets are not guessed
correctly. This has been associated with moti-
vation in a number of parapsychological studies:
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percipients who have an a priori disbelief in
ESP, and who are statistically naive, but who
(like most of us), think that the worse you score
on a test the less you know, have often been
shown to score significantly below chance, thus
thinking they have validated their belief that
there is no such phenomena as ESP10,11.
ESP MISSING IN THE FIRST TRAINING STUDY
The 10 percipients who completed the first
Training Study showed exceptionally significant
results in terms of real time hitting. For their
total of 5000 trials12, we would expect 500 hits
by chance, but 722 were observed. The two-tailed
probability of such an occurrence, using the
normal approximation to the binomial, is 2x10-25.
This corresponded, for the group as a whole, to
an average of 3.61 hits per run of 25, rather than
the average of 2.50 expected by chance.
There was considerable individual variation,
of course, with a few percipients apparently having
their overt manifestation of ESP suppressed in
terms of real time hitting and not showing indi-
vidual significance, a finding often associated
with changes in psychological conditions such as
we had in going from the Confirmation to the
Training Study. But five of the 10 percipients
showed exceptionally significant individual
scores. The least of these 5 averaged 3.90 hits
per run, for a P of 4x10-5, and the most signifi-
cant averaged 6.20 hits per run, for an individual
P of 4x10-28
In scoring for hits on the +1 future trial,
there were 4,790 trials where a hit could have
occurred (a few possibilities were lost when an
experimenter inadvertently gave only 24 trials in
a run, as well as the routine loss of 1 trial in
each run), so 479 hits would be expected by chance.
Only 318 hits occurred: this would occur by
chance with a 2-tailed probability of 8x10-15.
Thus some part of the percipients' minds was
occasionally using precognition to know what the
+1 future target was and then affecting the
conscious guessing of the real time target to be
sure it was not what the +1 target would be. All
other possible future displacements (+2, +3 . . .
+24) were checked, but were not of such obvious
significance, and so will not be reported on in
this paper.
Past temporal displacements were also
checked, and a rather regular pattern was found for
the -1 and -2 displacements. Figure 8 is a bar
graph of this for a percipient, E151, whose
individual pattern is typical of that of many
other percipients. He made 78 real time hits,
when 50 would be expected by chance, P = 4x10-5,
2-tailed. His avoidance of the immediate +1 future
was also extremely significant, P = 3x10-4,
1-tailed. His avoidance of the immediate -1
past was even greater, P = 5x10-8, 1-tailed. This
avoidance of -1 past targets being greater than
HITTING
Z
:
E1-S1
!
:
-3
-2
-1
1
PAST
FUTURE
1 -2
-3
-5
-6
MISSING
Fig. 8. Scoring pattern over all 500 trials
(20 runs) of percipient E151
for -3, -2, -1, real time, and +1
temporal displacements. Units of
vertical axis or standard normal
deviates (Z-scores, o ).
the avoidance of the +1 future was the typical
pattern for almost all percipients.
The past targets at the -2 displacement
were also significantly avoided, but by the -3
displacement and for other greater temporal
displacements, the group average was generally
small, being only non-significant variations
around chance. This suggests something in ac-
cordance with known psychological facts about
people's guessing habits, namely that percip-
ients strongly avoid making their guess
identical to what the immediately previous
target has been, a similar psychological avoid-
ance holds, but is not quite so strong, by two
targets back, and is pretty much inoperative by
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three or more targets back.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN REAL TIME HITTING
AND AVOIDING THE FUTURE
It turns out that this precognitive avoid-
ance of the immediate +1 future in the first
Training Study was not an isolated event, but was
quite strongly and negatively related to the
degree of real time hitting. Figure 9 shows the
magnitude of the real time hitting and the +1
missing (hitting in one case) for each individual
percipient. The vertical axis is Z or @
score,
with anything greater than 20' conventionally
being accepted as statistically significant. I
HITTING O
1
10
9
8
10-Choice Trainer
7
r . -. 835
P . . 005
6
slope = .. 835
0
5
3
2
1
Z
1
- 2
-3
-4
-5
I
MISSING
STRATEGY-BOUNDNESS
3
2
1
Fig. 9.
Relationship between real time
hitting, +1 future missing, and
strategy-boundness, first Training
Study.
have ordered the real time hitting scores from
the highest on the left down through the greatest
degree of missing on the real time target to the
right. The rather good ordering of missing scores
on the +1 future target that then results is an
indication of the strength of the relationship
between these two measures, which, statistically
speaking, should be totally independent. The
dotted lines are fitted regression Jines. As
can be seen, there is an extremely strong rela-
tionship: the more a percipient tends to hit on
the real time target by ESP, the more he tends
to avoid the +1 future target. The correlation
is -. 835, P < . 005, 2-tailed. A rank order
correlation, which makes somewhat less assump-
tions about the characteristics of the numerical
scaling13, gives r = -. 89, a slight increase.
We shall consider the lower graph, labeled
strategy-boundedness, later.
The small squares beside each individual
percipient's data indicate when the real time
hits were significantly different from the +1
future missing by a t-test, applied over the 20
runs of each individual percipient. Six of the
10 percipeints show such significant differences,
including one whose real time hitting no longer
showed individual significance by itself.
As a further test to be certain that the
negative relationship between real time hitting
and +1 future missing in the first Training
Study did not result from peculiar numerical
properties of the target and response sequences,
a control experiment was carried out in which
the target sequence for each percipient was
paired with the response sequence from some
other percipient and the same analyses carried
out. There were no significant "real time"
hits, no significant +1 missing, and no rela-
tionship between the two.
PSYCHOKINESIS AS AN ALTERNATIVE
TO PRECOGNITION?
Because numerous studies have shown that
humans can influence the output of electronic
RNGs simply by willing some outputs to come up
more frequently 14 (psychokinesis, PK), and be-
cause we could not be sure that some of our
percipients might not unconsciously use PK on
the RNG, rather than just using ESP to know the
state of the machine or the experimenter/sender's
mind, we made an a priori decision to test our
RNGs for randomness before and after our Training
Studies, but not during them, when percipients
might be "on line" in the sense of being con-
cerned about and possibly influencing the RNGs.
As a post hoc, exploratory study, we
did test the individual target sequences of each
percipient for randomicity, and found that 3 of
the 17 sequences (both Training Studies combined)
did show statistically significant departures
from randomicity, as per our hypothesis that our
percipients might unconsciously use PK on the
RNGs. Two of the nonrandom target sequences were
for the two highest scoring percipients in the
first Training Study, E153 and E155. Although
the magnitude of these target sequence departures
from randomicity was small compared to the mag-
nitude of the ESP effects, suggesting that these
percipients occasionally used PK on the RNG but
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were mostly using ESP, I did check the correla-
tions between real time hitting and +1 future
missing to see if they would be affected if the
data from these two percipients were thrown out.
The differences were trivial and can be ignored:
for the first Training Study, r = -. 81 instead
of r = -. 84.
REPLICATION OF EFFECTS IN THE
SECOND TRAINING STUDY
The second Training Study was not as suc-
cessful as the first in terms of magnitude of
real time ESP shown, an unfortunate, but pre-
dicted, effect. Our second Selection Study and
second Confirmation Study did not give us indi-
vidual percipients with as high scores as we had
in the first Training Study. The group of per-
cipients who entered the first Training Study
had Confirmation Study scores ranging from 2.50-
6.00 hits per run of 25 (chance is 2.50), with a
mean group score of 4.78, while the corresponding
range was 2.75 to 4.50, group mean of 3.61 hits/
run, for the percipients who completed the
second Training Study. The difference was statis-
tically significant (P < . 05, 2-tailed, by t-test).
Ideally, we should have run more students through
our Selection Study and Confirmation Study
procedure, and made the ESP talent level compar-
able to that of the first Training Study. Time,
money, and manpower shortages prohibited this, so
we used the percipients we had, but predicted
that our overall level of ESP would be smaller
in the second Training Study. It was.
Seven percipients completed the second
Training Study. The overall group mean (2.61) did
not differ significantly from chance expectation,
although two of the seven percipients showed
individually significant results. One of these
percipients showed individually significant
real time hitting (average of 3.20 hits/run,
P < . 05, 2-tialed), the other showed individually
significant real time missing (average of 1.85
hits/run, P < . 05, t-tailed), so they effectively
cancelled each other out.
Figure 10 shows the individual percipient
results for real time scoring and +1 missing or
hitting. My hypothesis that we still had talented
ESP percipients, but that the increased pressure
of the Training Study had probably inhibited
their ESP abilities, as in the first Training
Study, was confirmed. Five of the seven percip-
ients showed individually significant differences
(t-test) between their real time scores and +1
future scores. The negative relationship between
real time hitting and +1 missing was again con-
firmed, with r = -. 733, P < . 05, 1-tailed. The
more conservative rank order correlation gives
r = -. 79, a slightly stronger effect. The slight
apparent reversal of the effect for the top three
real time hitters does not detract substantially
from the overall correlation. It might suggest
10-Choice Trainer
SECOND TRAINING STUDY
r = -. 733
P <. 05
slope = -. 755
3
O
o
2
212
O
Z
-1
-2
-3
3
2
1
Z
Fig. 10.
Relationship between real time
hitting, +1 future missing, and
strategy-boundedness, second
Training Study.
non-linearity, but, given the following dis-
cussion, this is unlikely.
As in the first Training Study, I carried
out an exploratory, post hoc analysis for
possible nonrandomicity in the percipients'
target sequences that might represent a PK
effect. One of the seven target sequences, for
percipient E2510, showed too many 7s. Curiously,
this percipient scored almost exactly at chance
expectation (51 hits versus 50 expected) for
real time hits. Conservatively deleting the data
of E2510, however, again has a negligible effect
on the correlation between real time hitting
and +1 future missing: r = -. 74, P< . 05,
1-tailed.
In many ways, the percipients from the
Second Training Study amounted to a sampling
of the lower end of the distribution sampled
in the first Training Study, so I combined
results of the two Training Studies, to produce
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HITTING
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESENT TIME HITTING
AND FUTURE (+1) MISSING
10
PRESENT
r = -. 85
P -. 001
A
FUTURE
3
2
1
t
Z
O
-1
-2
-5
MISSING
STRATEGY-BOUNDNESS
2
1
Z
0
Fig. 11.
Relationship between real time hitting, +1 future missing, and strategy-boundedness,
combined data of both Training Studies.
the diagram shown in Figure 11. Here the strong
negative relationship between real time hitting
and +1 missing stands out very clearly, (r = -. 85,
P < . 001, 2-tailed). The more conservative rank
order correlation is also -. 85. The highly suc-
cessful real time ESP percipients strongly
suppressed the immediate future, while the ones
who, under the increased psychological pressure
of the Training Study, tended to switch to miss-
ing in real time, an incorrect focusing of the
ESP effect, showed some tendency to switch to
hitting on the immediate future.
If, to be very conservative, the data of
the three percipients showing nonrandom target
sequences are deleted from the overall
correlation, the change is negligible, with r
changing from -. 84 to -. 82 instead, so the data
from these three percipients will be left in.
More microscopic analyses, aimed at distinguish-
ing these small possible PK effects from ESP
effects will be undertaken in future publica-
tions.
Such a significant, negative relationship
between real time hitting and +1 missing has
not, to my knowledge, been previously reported
in the experimental parapsychological litera-
ture15. This may be partly due to the fact
that it has not been looked for, but I also
suspect it is partially due to a procedurel
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difference. In the present Training Studies, there
was a sequential generation of targets "on
line," as it were. In most parapsychological
studies, until fairly recently, targets have
been thoroughly shuffled decks of cards. In
precognition studies with cards, the entire
sequence of future targets is generated simul-
taneously when they are thoroughly shuffled at a
future time, rather than being generated one by
one after each real time response.
I shall now present the theory I have
devised to explain these results. I am deeply
indebted to Enoch Callaway, a colleague at the
Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute, who,
after seeing a preliminary analysis of this data,
suggested that they resembled a neural inhibitory
surround, and started the train of thought in
me that led to the following theory.
THE DURATION OF THE PRESENT
If you will stop to ask yourself what is
"present" to your experience, you will find
that your experienced present, although very
short, definitely seems to have a certain dura-
tion. The mathematical abstraction of the present
being a temporal point of zero width, sandwiched
between past and future, is a useful abstraction
in a variety of applications, but a poor repre-
sentation of psychological experience. In Figure
12, the heavy lines model what we might call, by
analogy with filters, the "passband" of the
experienced present. For some small duration,
INTENSITY OF
EXPERIENCE
TIME
PAST
NOW
FUTURE
NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTIONING
...
EXTRASENSORY FUNCTIONING
Fig. 12.
Intensity and duration charac-
teristics of the experienced pre-
sent for ordinary consciousness
(heavy lines) and the extended
aspect of the mind that uses ESP
(dotted lines).
centered around the now, all actions and exper-
iences are now. The length of this interval is
slightly variable, depending on how our atten-
tion is focused, and probably is ordinarily
somewhere between one-tenth and two-tenths
of a second wide. Within this experienced now,
the intensity of experience (the vertical
axis) is very high. At the edges of the pass-
band experience drops in intensity and clarity.
Dynamically, we should picture this passband
as moving along horizontally from past to
future. Whether experience within this passband
of the experienced now is actually continuous
or consists of discrete frames, with awareness
of the inter-frame interval suppressed, is an
interesting question.
An old psychological term for this effect
was the "specious present," a term I do not
like, as it shows that the mathematical ab-
straction was being considered more real than
actual experience, implying that direct exper-
ience was specious. I shall speak of the
experienced present, and its width. By using
"outside" time sources, such as a clock, we
can say that the experienced present has a
definite width, even though to the mind, this
small segment of time is all now.
PRECOGNITION AND THE EXPERIENCED PRESENT
There are dozens of published parapsycho-
logical studies indicating that precognition,
under laboratory conditions, is a genuine
phenomenon?''. These results are usually con-
ceptualized as the future "influencing" the
present, or as information flow from the future
to the past. Reactions to this data are fre-
quently mixed with "absolute" questions about
free will versus determinism or causality, and
discussions get phrased in such absolute terms
that they lead nowhere.
An alternative way of accounting for the
data of precognition is to postulate that there
is some other temporal dimension of mental
functioning, a temporal dimension in which time
"flows at a different rate" or some such thing,
with the consequence that the experienced
present of the mind in that other temporal
dimension has a greater duration, a wider pass-
band than our ordinary experienced present.
This wider passband is shown in Figure 12 as
the dotted line. The exact shape of the passband
as drawn is not important: it merely represents
that, ordinarily, the intensity of experience
tapers off to near zero at some point.
I am proposing that the aspect of mind
which is activated on those occasions when ESP
abilities are used has two properties different
from our ordinary consciousness, which seems
spatially localized with respect to the brain
and temporally localized with respect to the
time system's physical processes of brain
operation. The first property is that this other
dimension of the mind is not so spatially
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localized, and can thus somehow pick up informa-
tion at spatial locations outside the sensory
range of the body/brain/nervous system. The
second property is that the center point of the
experienced present of this other dimension of the
mind can be a different time than the physical
time associated with the body/brain/nervous system,
and the band width of that other part of the
mind's experienced present is wider than the
band width of our ordinary consciousness's ex-
perienced present. Thus what is now in this
other dimension of the mind may include portions
of time that, from our ordinary point of view,
are past and future, as well as present.
Since consciousness (or basic awareness,
as I prefer to call it in my systems approach to
consciousness16) is ordinarily fully identified
and preoccupied with body/brain/nervous system
functioning, the experienced intensity of the
parts of mind that operates in this other
temporal and spatial dimension is ordinarily
quite low, usually below conscious threshold,
and is shown accordingly so in the figure.
When a percipient is asked to use ESP, he
must disregard ongoing sensory input (the
experimental conditions make it irrelevant)
and whatever fantasies or strategies he has
about outguessing the RNG ( since targets are
equiprobable and sequentially independent), and
try to "contact" or "tune in" to that aspect of
mind which exists or is capable of using this
broader spatial and temporal dimension. Con-
sidering the temporal aspects of it, this
creates a problem. If your desire is to obtain
real time information, being "sent" by the ex-
perimenter/sender in another laboratory, then
simply tapping into the wider experiential
present of this other dimension is not good
enough: its now includes information about past
and future events, as well as present events.
Since your goal is present event information,
this past and future information is noise which
may interfere with detection of the desired signal.
Given the psychological set of experimenters
and percipients in our studies, namely concentra-
ting on getting the real time information by
ESP, this implicitly defined the temporal
boundaries of that real time information as the
immediate -1 past and the immediate +1 future
targets/trials. We shall consider effects of
altering this psychological definition later.
Figure 13 models what a percipient must do
to use ESP successfully, then, to get real time
information. His awareness is receiving irrele-
vant sensory information that must be disregard-
ed. His memories of what past targets have been
may suggest guessing strategies, but they are
irrelevant, since each output of the RNG is in-
dependent of the previous ones. He must occasion-
ally tap into that dimension of mind that uses
ESP, but since that part of the mind is getting
MEMORY OF
PAST
GUESSING
STRATEGIES
AWARENESS
RESPONSE
NOISE
DISCRIMINATION
PROCESS
ESP
NOISE
PAST
NOW
FUTURE
Fig. 13.
A model of psychological pro-
cesses used in making a success-
ful ESP response.
information about past and future as well as
present, he must further add a discrimination
process of some kind which will clearly identify
the past and future aspects of the ESP informa-
tion, and then actively suppress such aspects,
in order to enhance the detectability of the
real time, desired ESP information. The output
of the discrimination process, then, consists
of some kind of information designed to in-
fluence the percipient's conscious guessing
processes to correctly guess the present real
time target, and to inhibit guessing target
identities which are the same as the immediate
future and the immediate past targets, lest the
past or future be confused with the present.
The non-conscious ESP and discrimination
processes may certainly work intermittently and
imperfectly, depending on other factors which
could constitute both systematic or random
noise at various stages in the total information
flow system.
TRANS-TEMPORAL INHIBITION
What I am postulating, then, is an active
inhibition of the precognitively and post-
cognitively gained information about immediate
future and immediate past, in order to enhance
the detectability of ESP information about real
time events. Since this inhibition extends over
time, I have named this phenomenon trans-
temporal inhibition.
Except for the unusual features of ex-
tending over time rather than space,
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trans-temporal inhibition is analogous to a
widely used information processing strategy in
the nervous system called lateral inhibition17.
This is a general phenomenon of a highly stimul-
ated receptor sending out inhibitory impulses to
receptor endings laterally/spatially adjacent to
it, thus suppressing their initially weaker
output, unless they are also strongly stimulated
by an appropriate stimulus. It amounts to an edge
detection process. To illustrate: if you press
on your skin with a sharply pointed object, not
only is the touch receptor immediately under the
point strongly stimulated, but, because of the
mechanical deformation of the skin, receptors
laterally adjacent to the point are also stimu-
lated, although less intensely. The neural impulses the data of percipient E151. For this particular
example, about half of the -1 missing would be
assumed to be due to trans-temporal inhibition
of the post-cognitive response to the -1 target
and half to maladaptive strategy boundness.
HITTING
resulting at the first stage of detection, then,
would be most intense immediately under the
stimulated point, but fairly intense on each side
of it, gradually tapering off, producing a
neural signal pattern suggesting a blunt, rounded
stimulating object, rather than a point. The
most stimulated receptor under the point, however,
sends out inhibitory impulses suppressing the
weaker (less frequent) impulses from the
laterally adjacent receptors, and so recovering
a pattern indicating point stimulation further
on in the nervous system. The phenomenon of
trans-temporal inhibition, then, suggests that
a generally useful information processing pro-
cedure is also operative for ESP.
How well does this theory fit the data?
APPLYING THE THEORY TO THE DATA
In showing the +1, real time, and -1 score
patterns of percipient E151 earlier in Figure B
(we shall ignore the -2 and -3 points from now
on, as they are not related to other things), I
indicated that the very significant degree of
missing on the immediately past -1 target
probably reflected maladaptive guessing habits
on the percipient's part. The RNG is so construct-
ed that there are no sequential dependencies, i.e.,
the probability of two sequential targets being a
one-one is identical to that of their being a
two-two, a three-three, a three-four, a one-nine,
etc. People, however, have inaccurate conceptions
of what random sequences are, and usually believe
that the probability of the same target occurring
twice is considerably less than that of a dif-
ferent target following the original one, that
is that one-one, two-two, etc., are all much less
probably than one-two, one-three, two-four, etc.
Thus the percipients tend to avoid giving a
response that is the same as the previous target,
and I suggest that this accounted for the very
large degree of the -1 missing. The theory of
trans-temporal inhibition, however, assumes that
the experienced present of this other dimension
of the mind is probably symmetrical in most
circumstances: this is an assumption that will
be made, paralleling the general assumption that
works so well in the physical sciences, namely
that all physical processes are symmetrical 16.
Given this symmetry assumption, I then postulated
that the -1 missing could be partialed into two
components. One of these would be post-cognitive
ESP inhibition of the calling of the previous
target, and I would further assume that this
component would be approximately equal in mag-
nitude to the inhibition of the +1 response
for each percipient, treated individually. The
rest of the missing on the -1 past displacement
would be due to maladaptive guessing strategies,
this business of tending not to repeat the
immediately past target. I have named this
component of the -1 missing, strategy boundness.
Figure 14 shows this partialing out applied to
EXTRASENSORY EFFECTS
MALADAPTIVE GUESSING HABITS
OTHER GUESSING HABITS
PAST
-3 -2 -1
+1
FUTURE
1
STRATEGY BOUNDNESS
MISSING
Fig. 14.
Partialing out the strategy
boundness measure from the total
missing on the -1 temporal dis-
placement.
My conception of the optimal way to try to
use ESP is that all "rational" processes are
irrelevant. A guessing strategy which involves
keeping track of what the past targets have
been and then trying to outguess the RNG is not
only a waste of time (because of the sequential
independence of the RNGO, but it distracts a
percipient from turning his awareness toward
more relevant mental processes, toward what we
might call metaphorically "listening to the
still small voice within" that might occasion-
ally give a useful hint about target identity.
STRATEGY BOUNDNESS AND SUCCESS IN USING ESP
On theoretical grounds, then, we would
expect that the more strategy boundness a
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percipient showed, the less real time ESP he
would show. Since trans-temporal inhibition of
the future (and by assumption, of the past)
target response is adaptive for enhancing real
time ESP, we would also expect that with more
strategy boundness there would be less missing
on the +1 future target. The data bear this out
quite convincingly.
Because the signs for the straight arithmet-
ical computations of missing, strategy boundness,
etc. require a good deal of attention to follow in
terms of their relationships, I have taken the
value of strategy boundness which is inherently
negative (missing) and made it positive, to make
the results clearer.
In orginally computing the correlations be-
tween real time hitting, +1 future missing, and
-1 past missing for percipients in the combined
two Training Studies, I found that +1 future miss-
ing was significantly correlated with real time
hitting ( r = -. 85, P < . 001), but the magnitude
of -1 past missing did not correlate significant-
ly with either the magnitude of real time hitting
(r = -. 24, non-significant) or with the magnitude
of the +1 future missing (r = +14, non-signifi-
cant). After factoring out strategy boundness, as
discussed above, it turns out that strategy
boundness is significantly correlated with the
other two measures. Strategy boundness correlates
r = -. 64, P < . 01 with present time hitting, and
r = +.83, P < . 001, with +1 future missing.
Referring back to Figures 9, 10, and 11, where
the degree of individual strategy boundness was
plotted for the percipients in the lower part
of the graphs, the strength of this relationship
is very clear. The more a percipient was caught
up in maladaptive strategy boundness, the less
likely he was to show real time hitting and the
less likely he was to show trans-temporal
inhibition, missing of the +1 future target.
Strategy boundness can be conceived of as a
failure to direct awareness to that part of the
mind which is not so localized in space and time
and so exercises ESP, but instead leaving
awareness involved with ordinary aspects of the
mind which cannot use ESP.
Applying the symmetry assumption, then,
takes some random data (the absolute magnitude
of the -1 past deviations) and partials it into
highly meaningful data.
A FURTHER TEST OF THE THEORY
As I mentioned earlier, both percipients and
experimenters in my two Training Studies were
focused on the ordinary present, on the task of
picking up real time information. This implicitly
defined the immediate boundaries of the now as
the +1 and -1 future and past target events.
Since my data rarely suggest significant ESP
missing on the +2 target (and, by the same sort
of operations described above, on the -2 target),
this suggests that while the experienced present
of this other dimension of the mind was wider
than the ordinary experienced present, it was
not too much wider. Others' studies of precog-
nition8,9, however, have often dealt. with
events which are much further ahead in the
future, minutes, hours, days, and sometimes
months. Insofar as the trans-temporal inhibition
theory is correct, I would predict that if the
focus of attention is successfully placed on
some future event, there ought to be ESP hitting
on that event, but inhibition of responses to
events temporally surrounding that future event.
Using our filter analogy, with the experienced
present of the dimension of the mind that uses
ESP corresponding to the band width of that
filter, it should be possible, by means of
psychological processes, to shift the center
point and/or the band width of the filter, and
see a corresponding shift of trans-temporal
inhibition. I have been able to carry out one
test of this prediction to date.
Ingo Swann is a well know New York artist
who posses a variety of ESP abilities which he
has demonstrated under rigorous laboratory
conditions in other investigators' laboratories,
including Stanford Research
Institute 18
the City College of New York
. Swann was
present at a small meeting of parapsychological
and
researchers in October, 1976, when I presented
the above data and the basic theory about
trans-temporal inhibition, although I did not
say much about the prediction of the possibility
of shifting the center point of the experienced
now of this other aspect of mind, or its
predicted consequences. Swann was very intrigued
by my data and made a number of useful comments
on it, including his own observation that what
he and the SRI researchers Targ and Puthoff
called "analytical overlay" seemed to correspond
to my concept of strategy boundness, any kind
of "rational" but actually irrelevant activities
that diverted one from relevant aspects of the
ESP task. He wanted to try my ADEPT training
device, and a few days later was able to
briefly visit my laboratory.
I looked forward to his visit with con -;
siderable interest, for he would be the first
percipient who, because he had heard about
trans-temporal inhibition, would be psychologic-
ally set to have some concern with the immediate
(+1) future target, as well as the real time
target. I predicted he would probably show
hitting on the +1 future target, but missing
on the +2 future target. This is what happened.
Swann did 5 runs on ADEPT in the course
of a little over an hour, for a total of 129
trials (in one run he inadvertently did 29
trials instead of the usual 25). He made 21
real time hits in the 5 runs, where only 12.9
would be expected by chance, P = 9x10-3.
1-tailed. In terms of +1 future scoring, he
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made 19 hits when only 12.4 were expected by
chance, P = . 03, 1-tailed. His +1 precognition
scores' significance is probably underrepresented
by this conventional evaluation, because he
tended to have bursts of hitting twice in a row on
+1 precognition, and a separate evaluation of the
probability of the number of doublet precognition
hits he showed gives odds of 10-6.
On +2 precognition hits, he scored only 7
hits when 11.9 would be expected by chance, P =
.07, 1-tailed. This is not quite independently
significant for below chance scoring by itself,
but, as predicted, a t-test shows the difference
between the scoring rate on the +1 and +2 hits is
statistically significant (t = 2.59, 4 df, P<
.05, 1-tailed)20.
I later asked Swann if he was deliberately
trying to guess the immediate future target as
well as the real time target, and he replied
that he had not been deliberately trying to do
this, consciously he was concentrating on the
real time target. This suggests that the pass-
band of the "wider dimension filter" can be
altered without there being full conscious
awareness of it.
ESP HITTING
I.S.
3
+2
PAST
FUTURE
-1
-2
ESP MISSING
Fig. 15.
Widened temporal passband for
Ingo Swann.
Figure 15 shows Swann's performance on -1,
real time, +1, and +2 temporal displacements.
It is also interesting to note the magnitude of
his -1 displacement score: it is only slightly
larger than the +2 missing displacement, indi-
cating a very low degree of strategy boundness.
This is precisely what we would expect for
someone with high ESP abilities. Incidentally,
we should not overlook the fact that it is a
quite amazing performance for Mr. Swann to have
walked in "cold" off the street, as it were,
and immediately shown statistically significant
ESP in a new test situation.
Although it is a post hoc speculation, it
is of interest to raise the question as to
whether the "passbands" of some of the earlier
percipients' trans-temporal inhibition processes
were shifted in a manner analogous to Swann's.
In the first Training Study, percipient E5514
had Z-scores of -6.69 for -1 temporal missing,
+1.04 for real time hits, +1.83 for +1 future
hits, and -2.64 for +2 future missing, and the
drop from +1 hitting to +2 missing is signifi-
cant21 (t = 3.40 with 19 df, P < . 005, 1-tailed).
In the second Training Study, percipient E454
had Z-scores of -5.48 for -1 temporal missing,
-. 89 missing on real time targets, +1.83
hitting on +1 future displacements, and -. 78
on +2 missing. The difference between +1
hitting and +2 missing is significant (t = 2.00
with 19 df, P < . 05, 1-tailed). The difference
between +1 and +2 scoring for a third percipi-
ent from the second Training Study, E1SB, who
showed a tendency toward hitting (Z = +1.06)
on the +1 future target, is not at all signifi-
cant (for +2, Z = +.62).
CONCLUSIONS
The major mystery about various kinds of
ESP is how the information gets from the target
to the percipient: once the percipient has
"received" or "sensed" the information on some
non-conscious level, it generally seems to be
processed in psychologically familiar ways22.
Trans-temporal inhibition is a general infor-
mation processing procedure that is psychologic-
ally and neurologically familiar: the puzzle
is in the precognitive (and postualted post-
cognitive) acquisition of the information about
immediate future (and immediate past) targets.
Further data on these effects would be
very desirable. Although emphasis of teaching
improved ESP skills in our two studies made
the provision of immediate feedback necessary,
one clear line of research to follow, once
percipients have been brought up to high levels
of performance, is elimination of the feedback,
so the postulated postcognitive inhibition
component can be assessed independently of
effects of maladaptive guessing habits. Further
work on deliberatley shifting the focus of
attention, as with Swann, is also needed. If
the trans-temporal inhibition effect is vali-
dated, it ought to be possible to combine it
with an information theory approach to optimize
ESP performance: would long time intervals
between trials, for example, make real time
ESP more successful by reducing interference
from future and past targets? Is comparing the
contrast between real time hitting and +1
future missing a better measure of a percipient's
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potential ESP capacity than hitting per se?
I plan considerably more analysis of the
microstructure of the already collected data,
and will, if funds become available, carry out
further research along the lines suggested
above. I hope others will investigate this
fascinating new effect.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
11.
Pratt, J. G., The meaning of performance
curves in ESP and PK test data. J.
Parapsychology, 1949, 13, 9-22.
2.
Rhine, J. B., The Reach of the Mind. New
Yock; Wm. Sloane, 1947. Pp. 189-190.
3.
Tart, C., Card guessing tests: learning
paradigm or extinction paradigm? J. Amer.
Soc. Psychical Res., 1966, 60, 46-55.
4.
Tart, C., Conscious control of psi through
immediate feedback training: some consid-
erations of internal processes. Submitted
for publication.
5.
Tart, C. Learning to Use Extrasensory
Perception. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1976. The research reported in
that book was generously supported by the
Parapsychology Foundation, with adminis-
trative assistance from the Institute for
the Study of Human Knowledge.
6.
This second study by myself, John Palmer,
Dana Redington, Henry Bennett, and my
students, was supported by a generous
grant from the est Foundation.
7.
Construction of ADEPT was made possible
by another grant from the Parapsychology
Foundation.
8.
Rao, R., Experimental Parapsychology.
Springfield, Ill .: Charles C. Thomas, 1966,
is an excellent survey of experimental
work in parapsychology, although a little
dated.
9.
White, R. (Ed. ), Surveys in Parapsychology:
Reviews of the Literature, with Updated
Bibliographies. Metuchen, N. J. : Scare-
Crow Press, 1976. Updates the Rao book,
above.
10.
Schmeidler, G., & McConnell, R., ESP and
Personality Patterns. New Haven: Yale
Univ. Press, 1958.
11.
Palmer, J., Scoring in ESP tests as a
function of belief in ESP. Part I. The
sheep-goat effect. 3. Amer. Soc. Psychical
Res., 1971, 65, 373-408. Also Palmer, J.,
Scoring in ESP tests as a function of
belief in ESP. Part II. Beyond the sheep-
goat effect. J. Amer. Soc. Psychical Res.,
1972, 66, 1-26.
12.
In the original publication of these ESP
learning results", we worked with total
run scores and did not realize that the
total number of trials was slightly less
than 5,000. The current total analysis
here retains the convention of 5,000
trials to be consistent with the original
publication, as this is a conservative
error: the data are slightly more signifi-
cant than the results here calculated.
13.
Siegel, S., Nonparametric Statistics for
the Behavioral Sciences. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1956.
14.
Andr6, E., Confirmation of PK action on
electronic equipment. J. Parapsychology,
1972, 36, 283-293. Braud, W., et al.,
Psychokinetic influence on random number
generators during the evocation of
"analytic" versus "nonanalytic" modes of
information processing. In Morris, J., et
al., (Eds.), Research in Parapsychology
1975. Metuchen, N.J. : Scarecrow Press,
1976. Pp. 85-88. Honorton, C., & Barksdale,
W., PK performance with waking suggestions
for muscle tension versus relaxation. J.
Amer. Soc. Psychical Res., 1972, 66, 208-
214. Matas, F., & Pantas, L., A PK experi-
ment comparing meditating versus non-
meditating subjects. Proc. Parapsychol.
Assn., 1971, No. 8, Pp. 12-13. Millar,
B., & Broughton, R., A preliminary PK
experiment with a novel computer-linked
high speed random number generator. In
Morris, J., Roll, W., & Morris, R. (Eds.),
Research in Parapsychology 1975. Metuchen,
N.J. : Scarecrow Press, 1976. Pp. 83-84.
Schmidt, H., A PK test with electronic
equipment. J. Parapsychol., 1970, 34,
175-181. Schmidt, H., PK tests with a high-
speed random number generator. J. Para-
psychol., 1973, 37, 105-118. Schmidt, H.,
Observations of subconscious PK effects
with and without time displacement. In
Morris, J., Roll, W., & Morris, R. ( Eds. ),
Research in Parapsychology 1974, Metuchen,
N.J .: Scarecrow Press, 1975. Pp. 116-121.
Schmidt, H., PK experiment with repeated
time displaced feedback. In Morris, J.,
Roll, W., & Morris, R. (Eds. ), Research
in Parapsychology 1975. Metuchen, N.J. :
Scarecrow Press, 1976. Pp. 107-109.
Schmidt, H., & Pantas, L., Psi tests with
internally different machines. J. Para-
psychol., 1972, 36, 222-232. Stanford, R.,
& Fox, C., An effect of release of effort
in a psychokinetic task. In Morris, J.,
Roll, W., & Morris, R., (Eds.), Research
in Parapsychology 1974. Metuchen, N.J. :
Scarecrow Press, 1975. Pp. 61-63.
Stanford, R., Zenhausen, R., Taylor, A.,
& Dwyer, M., Psychokinesis as psi-
mediated instrumental response. J. Amer.
Soc. Psych. Res., 1975, 69, 127-134.
15.
Although there are more than 700 published
articles showing experimental evidence for
the existence of ESP and investigating
its mechanisms, they are not generally
known to the scientific community, having
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appeared in specialty journals. The
reader interested in getting into this lit-
erature should consult the International
Journal of Parapsychology, the Journal of
Parapsychology, the Journal of the American
Society for Psychical Research, the Journal
of the Society for Psychical Research
(British), and the recent European Journal
of Parapsychology.
16.
Tart, C., States of Consciousness. New
York: Dutton, 1975.
17.
von Bekesy, G., Sensory Inhibition. Prince-
ton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1967.
18.
Targ, R., & Puthoff, H., Mind-Reach:
Scientists Look at Psychic Ability. New
York: Delacorte, 1977.
19.
Schmeidler, G., PK effects upon continu-
ously recorded temperature. J. Amer. Soc.
20.
Psychical Res., 1973, 67, 325-240.
Five pairs of data points is a low N for
a t-test and pushes the underlying assump-
tions, but I used it to be consistent
with earlier analyses.
21.
In comparing scores between real time,
+1 temporal displacement, or +2 temporal
displacement, we deal with a shortened
run length in each case (25, 24, 23),
meaning that the expected number of hits
by chance would be slightly lower (2.5,
2.4, 2.3), so in doing the t-tests, this
was compensated for by testing against
the null hypotheses_that /real time hits/
= (+1 hits) + (.1) and (+1 hits) + (.1)7
= _ (+2 hits) + (.2)7.
22.
Tart, C., Psi: Scientific Studies of the
Psychic. New York: Dutton, in press.
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