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SRI
STANFORD RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Menlo Park, California 94025 - U.S.A.
...
A PERCEPTUAL CHANNEL FOR INFORMATION
TRANSFER OVER KILOMETER DISTANCES:
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND RECENT RESEARCH
by
Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ
Electronics and Bioengineering Laboratory
Stanford Research Institute
333 Ravenswood Avenue, Menlo Park, California 94025
To be published in the PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE
March, 1976
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ABSTRACT
For more than one hundred years, scientists have attempted to deter-
mine the truth or falsity of claims for the existence of a perceptual
channel whereby certain individuals are able to perceive and describe
remote data not presented to any known sense. This paper presents an
outline of the history of scientific inquiry into such so-called para-
normal perception and surveys the current state of the art in parapsycho-
logical research in the United States and abroad. The nature of this
perceptual channel is examined in a series of experiments carried out in
the Electronics and Bioengineering Laboratory of Stanford Research Insti-
tute.
The perceptual modality that we have investigated most extensively
is the ability of both experienced subjects and inexperienced volunteers
to view, by innate mental processes, remote geographical or technical
targets including buildings, roads, and laboratory apparatus.
Our ac-
cumulated data indicate that the phenomenon is not a sensitive function
of distance, and Faraday cage shielding does not in any apparent way
degrade the quality and accuracy of perception.
On the basis of this
research, some areas of physics are suggested from which a description
or explanation of the phenomenon could be forthcoming.
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
iii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
·
·
.
vii
LIST OF TABLES
ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
xi
I
INTRODUCTION
1
II
BACKGROUND
9
III
SRI INVESTIGATIONS OF REMOTE VIEWING
25
A.
Subject S1 :
Experienced
28
B.
Subject S4:
Learner
34
C.
Subjects S2 and S3:
Experienced
40
D.
Subjects S5 and S6 :
Learners
43
E.
Normal and Paranormal :
Use of Unselected
Subjects in Remote Viewing
46
F.
Technology Series :
Short-Range Remote Viewing
51
G.
Summary of Remote Viewing Results
59
1.
Discussion
59
2.
Summary
67
IV
CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING TIME
71
V
DISCUSSION
83
VI
CONCLUSIONS
89
V
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APPENDICES
A
SIGNAL ENHANCEMENT IN A PARANORMAL COMMUNICATION
CHANNEL BY APPLICATION OF REDUNDANCY CODING
91
B
REMOTE VIEWING TRANSCRIPT
101
REFERENCES
107
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ILLUSTRATIONS
1
Airport in San Andres, Colombia, Used as Remote Viewing
Target Along with Sketch Produced by Subject in
California
7
2
Occipital EEG Frequency Spectra, 0-20 Hz, of One Subject
(H.H.) Acting as Receiver Showing Amplitude Changes in
the 9-11-Hz Band as a Function of Strobe Frequency
24
3
Swimming Pool Complex as Remote Viewing Target
(a) City Map of Target Location
(b)
Drawing by Price (S1)
29
4
Subject Hammid (S4) Drawing Described as "Some Kind
of Diagonal Trough up in the Air"
36
5
Subject Hammid (S4) Response to Bicycle Shed Target
Described as an Open "Barn-Like Building" with "Slats
on the Sides" and a "Pitched Roof"
38
6
Subject Elgin (S2) Drawings in Response to Tennis
Court Target
42
7
Subject Swann (S3) Response to City Hall Target
44
8
Subject (S6) Drawing of White Plaza, Stanford University
48
9
Subject (V1) Drawing of Merry-Go-Round Target
50
10
Drawings of a Typewriter Target by Two Subjects
54
11
Drawings by Three Subjects (S2, S3, and V3) for Xerox
Machine Target
When subject (V3) was asked to described the square at
upper left, the subject said, "There was this predominant
light source which might have been a window, and a working
surface which might have been the sill, or a working surface
or desk." Earlier the subject had said, "I have the feeling
that there is something silhouetted against the window."
55
12
Drawing by Two Subjects of a Video Monitor Target
56
13
Subject (S4) Drawing of Drill Press Showing Belt Drive,
Stool, and a Graph that Goes Up and Down
60
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14
Subject Hammid (S4) Described "Some Kind of Congealing
Tar, or Maybe an Area of Condensed Lava. ... That Has
Oozed Out to Fill up Some Kind of Boundaries"
76
·
15
Subject (S4) Described a Formal Garden "Very Well
Manicured" Behind a Double Colonnade
77
16
Subject (S4) Saw a "Black Iron Triangle That Hal Had
Somehow Walked Into" and Heard a "Squeak, Squeak,
About Once a Second"
79
17
Subject (S4) Described a Very Tall Structure Located
Among City Streets and Covered With "Tiffany-Like Glass"
. .
80
A-1
Enhancement of Signal-to-Noise Ratio by Sequential
Sampling Procedure (Po = 0.4, P1 = 0.6, Q = 0.01,
B = 0.01)
95
A-2
Reliability Curve for Sequential Sampling Procedure
(Po = 0.4, P1 = 0.6, Q = 0.01, 8 = 0.01)
98
..
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TABLES
1
Critical Values of Sums of Ranks for Preferential
Matching
32
2
Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts
Associated with Each Target Location for
Experienced Subject Price (S1)
33
3
Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts
Associated with Each Target Location for
Learner Subject Hammid (S4)
39
4
Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts
Associated with Each Target Location for
Experienced Subjects Elgin (S2) and Swann (S3)
45
.
5
Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts
Associated with Each Target Location for
Subjects S5 and S6
47
6
Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts
Associated with Each Target Location for Visitor
Subjects V1 and V2
52
7
Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Subject Drawings
Associated with Each Target Location
58
8
Summary :
Remote Viewing
61
9
Experimental Protocol :
Precognitive Remote Viewing
73
A-1
5-Bit Code for Alphanumeric Characters
92
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Foundation for Parasensory Investi-
gation and the Parapsychology Foundation of New York City, the Institute
of Noetic Sciences, Palo Alto, California, and the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, NAS 7-100, We wish to express our gratitude
to our principal subjects, Mrs. Hella Hammid, Mr. Pat Price, and Mr. Ingo
Swann, who showed us patience and forbearance in addition to their en-
thusiasm and outstanding perceptual abilities. We note with sadness the
death of one of our subjects, Mr. Price. We express our sincere thanks
also to Mr. Earle Jones, Mr. Bonnar Cox, and Dr. Arthur Hastings, of SRI,
and Mrs. Judith Skutch and Mr. Richard Bach, without whose encouragement
and support this work could not have taken place.
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A Perceptual Channel for Information
Transfer over Kilometer Distances:
Historical Perspective and Recent Research
Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ
I
INTRODUCTION
"It is the province of natural science to investigate nature, impar-
tially and without prejudice [1]."
Nowhere in scientific inquiry has this
dictum met as great a challenge as in the area of so-called extrasensory
perception (ESP), the detection of remote stimuli not mediated by the
usual sensory processes.
Such phenomena, although under scientific con-
sideration for over a century, have historically been fraught with unre-
liability and controversy, and validation of the phenomena by accepted
scientific methodology has been slow in coming. Even so, a recent sur-
vey conducted by the British publication
New Scientist revealed that
67 percent of nearly 1500 responding readers (the majority of whom are
working scientists and technologists) considered ESP to be an established
fact or a likely possibility, and 88 percent held the investigation of ESP
to be a legitimate scientific undertaking [2].
A review of the literature reveals that although experiments by
reputable researchers yielding positive results were begun over a century
ago (e. g., Sir William Crookes' study of D. D. Home, 1860s) [3], many con-
sider the study of these phenomena as only recently emerging from the realm
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of quasi-science. One reason for this is that, despite experimental re-
sults, no satisfactory theoretical construct had been advanced to corre-
late data or to predict new experimental outcomes.
Consequently, the
area in question remained for a long time in the recipe stage reminiscent
of electrodynamics before the unification brought about by the work of
Ampere, Faraday, and Maxwell.
Since the early work, however, we have
seen the development of information theory, quantum theory, and neuro-
physiological research, and these disciplines provide powerful conceptual
tools that appear to bear directly on the issue.
In fact, several
physicists (Section V) are now of the opinion that these phenomena
are not at all inconsistent with the framework of modern physics: the
often-held view that observations of this type are a priori incom-
patible with known laws is erroneous in that such a concept is based
on the naive realism prevalent before the development of quantum theory.
In the emerging view, it is accepted that research in this area can
be conducted so as to uncover not just a catalog of interesting events,
but rather patterns of cause-effect relationships of the type that lend
themselves to analysis and hypothesis in the forms with which we are
familiar in the physical sciences. One hypothesis is that information
transfer under conditions of sensory shielding is mediated by extremely
low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic waves, a proposal that does not seem
to be ruled out by any obvious physical or biological facts.
Further,
the development of information theory makes it possible to characterize
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and quantify the performance of a communications channel regardless of
the underlying mechanism.
For the past three years, we have had a program in the Electronics
and Bioengineering Laboratory of SRI to investigate those facets of
human perception that appear to fall outside the range of well-understood
perceptual/processing capabilities. Of particular interest is a human
information-accessing capability that we call "remote viewing." This
phenomenon pertains to the ability of certain individuals to access and
describe, by means of mental processes, information sources blocked from
ordinary perception, and generally accepted as secure against such access.
In particular, the phenomenon we have investigated most extensively
is the ability of a subject to view remote geographical locations up to
several thousand km distant from his physical location (given only a known
person on whom to target) .*
We have carried out more than 50 experiments
under controlled laboratory conditions with several individuals whose re-
mote perceptual abilities have been developed sufficiently to allow them
at times to describe correctly -- often in great detail -- geographical or
technical material such as buildings, roads, laboratory apparatus, and
the like.
*
Our initial work in this area was reported in Nature 252, October 18,
1974 [4], and reprinted in the IEEE Communications Society 13, January 1975.
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As observed in the laboratory, the basic phenomenon appears to cover
a range of subjective experiences variously referred to in the literature
as autoscopy (in the medical literature) ; exteriorization or disassocia-
tion (psychological literature) ; simple clairvoyance, traveling clairvoy-
ance, or out-of-body experience (parapsychological literature) ; or astral
projection (occult literature). We choose the term "remote viewing" as
a neutral, descriptive term free from prior associations and bias as to
mechanisms.
The development at SRI
a
successful experimental procedure
to elicit this capability has evolved to the point where:
persons such
as visiting government scientists and contract monitors, without any
previous exposure to such concepts have leared to perform well; and sub-
jects who have trained over a one-year period have performed excellently
under a variety of experimental conditions. Our accumulated data thus
indicate that both specially selected and unselected persons can be as-
sisted in developing remote perceptual abilities up to a level of useful
information transfer.
In experiments of this type, we have three principal findings.
First,
we have established that it is possible to obtain significant amounts of
accurate descriptive information about remote locations. Second, an in-
crease in the distance from a few meters up to 4000 km separating the sub-
ject from the scene to be perceived does not in any apparent way degrade
the quality or accuracy of perception. Finally, the use of Faraday cage
electrical shielding does not prevent high-quality descriptions from being
obtained.
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To build a coherent theory for the explanation of these phenomena,
it is necessary to have a clear understanding of what constitutes the
phenomena. In this paper, we first briefly summarize previous efforts
in this field in Section II. We then present in Sections III and IV the
results of a series of more than 50 experiments with nine subjects carried
out in our own laboratory, which represent a sufficiently stable data base
to permit testing of various hypotheses concerning the functioning of this
channel.
Finally, in Section V we indicate those areas of physics and
information theory that appear to be relevant to an understanding of cer-
tain aspects of the phenomena.
First, however, we present an illustrative example generated in an
early pilot experiment. As will be clear from our later discussion, this
is not a "best-ever" example, but rather a typical sample of the level
of proficiency that can be reached and that we have come to expect in our
research.
Three subjects participated in a long-distance experiment focusing
on a series of targets in Costa Rica.
These subjects said they had never
been to Costa Rica. In this experiment, one of the experimenters (Dr.
Puthoff) spent ten days traveling through Costa Rica on a combination
business/pleasure trip. This information was all that was known to the
subjects about the traveler's itinerary.
The experiment called for Dr.
Puthoff to keep a detailed record of his location and activities, includ-
ing photographs of each of seven target days at 1330 PDT.
A total of twelve
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daily descriptions were collected before the traveler's return:
six re-
sponses from one subject, five from another, and one from a third.
The third subject who submitted the single response supplied a draw-
ing for a day in the middle of the series.
(The subject's response, to-
gether with the photographs taken at the site, are shown in Figure 1. )
Although Costa Rica is a mountainous country, the subject unexpectedly
perceived the traveler at a beach and ocean setting.
With some misgiving,
he described an airport on a sandy beach and an airstrip with the ocean
at the end (correct). An airport building also was drawn, and shown to
have a large rectangular overhang (correct).
The traveler had taken a
one-day, unplanned side-trip to an offshore island and at the time of the
experiment had just disembarked from a plane at a small island airport as
described by the subject 4000 km away. The sole discrepancy was that the
subject's drawing showed a Quonset-hut type of building in place of the
rectangular structure.
The above description was chosen as an example to illustrate a major
point observed a number of times throughout the program to be described.
Contrary to what may be expected, a subject's description does not neces-
sarily portray what may reasonably be expected to be correct (an educated
or "safe" guess), but often runs counter even to the subject's own expec-
tations.
We wish to stress again that a result such as the above is not unusual.
The remaining submissions in this experiment provided further examples of
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AEROPUERTOY SESOUCIE WE TURISTY
AIRPORT IN SAN ANDRES, COLOMBIA, USED AS REMOTE VIEWING TARGET
Zuday 4 /12/73
1:25- 1:30
ocean
Honger of
Airport BIJ,
grana
/concreti
werbung
DADA
BRIGHT
(run way
grass
Sand
SA-3183-20
FIGURE 1
AIRPORT IN SAN ANDRES, COLOMBIA, USED AS REMOTE VIEWING TARGET
ALONG WITH SKETCH PRODUCED BY SUBJECT IN CALIFORNIA
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excellent correspondences between target and response. (A target period
of poolside relaxation was identified; a drive through a tropical forest
at the base of a truncated volcano was described as a drive through a
jungle below a large bare table mountain; a hotel room target description,
including such details as rug color, was correct; and so on. )
So as to
determine whether such matches were simply fortuitous -- that is, could
reasonably be expected on the basis of chance alone, Dr. Puthoff was
asked after he had returned to blind match the twelve descriptions to
his seven target locations. On the basis of this conservative evaluation
procedure, which vastly underestimates the statistical significance of the
individual descriptions, five correct matches were obtained.
This number
of matches is significant at p = 0.02 by exact binomial calculation."
The observation of such unexpectedly high-quality descriptions early
in our program led to a large-scale study of the phenomenon at SRI under
secure, double-blind conditions (i.e., target unknown to experimenters as
well as subjects), with independent random target selection and blind judg-
ing.
The results, presented in Sections III and IV, provide strong evi-
dence for the robustness of this phenomenon whereby a human perceptual
modality of extreme sensitivity can detect complex remote stimuli.
*
The probability of a correct daily match by chance for any given tran-
script is p = 1/7. Therefore, the probability of at least five correct
matches by chance out of twelve tries can be calculated from
P = >
12
i! (12 - i) !
12!
(})*(5 ) (12-1
(12-i)
= 0.02
i=5
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II
BACKGROUND
Although we are approaching the study of these phenomena as physicists,
it is not yet possible to separate ourselves entirely from the language
of the nineteenth century when the laboratory study of the paranormal was
begun.
Consequently, we continue to use terms such as "paranormal, "telep-
athy," and the like.
However, we intend only to indicate a process of
information transfer under conditions generally accepted as secure against
such transfer and with no prejudice or occult assumptions as to the mecha-
nisms involved. As in any other scientific pursuit, the purpose is to
collect the observables that result from experiments and to try to deter-
mine the functional relationships between these observables and the laws
of physics as they are currently understood.
Organized research into so-called psychic functioning began roughly
in the time of J. J. Thomson, Sir Oliver Lodge, and Sir William Crookes,
all of whom took part in the founding of the Society for Psychical Research
(SPR) in 1882 in England.
Crookes, for example, carried out his principal
investigations with D. D. Home, a Scotsman who grew up in America and re-
turned to England in 1855 [3].
According to the notebooks and published
reports of Crookes, Home had demonstrated the ability to cause objects to
move without touching them.
We should note in passing that, Home, unlike
most subjects, worked only in the light and spoke out in the strongest
possible terms against the darkened seance rooms popular at the time [5].
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Sir William Crookes was a pioneer in the study of electrical discharge
in gases and in the development of vacuum tubes, some types of which still
bear his name. Although everything Crookes said about electron beams and
plasmas was accepted, nothing he said about the achievements of D. D. Home
ever achieved that status. Many of his colleagues, who had not observed
the experiments with Home, stated publicly that they thought Crookes had
been deceived, to which Crookes angrily responded:
Will not my critics give me credit for some amount of common
sense? Do they not imagine that the obvious precautions, which
occur to them as soon as they sit down to pick holes in my ex-
periments, have occurred to me also in the course of my prolonged
and patient investigation? The answer to this, as to all other
objections is, prove it to be an error, by showing where the
error lies, or if a trick, by showing how the trick is performed.
Try the experiment fully and fairly. If then fraud be found,
expose it; if it be a truth, proclaim it. This is the only
scientific procedure, and it is that I propose steadily to
pursue [3].
In the United States, scientific interest in the paranormal was cen-
tered in the universities. In 1912 John Coover [6] was established in the
endowed Chair of Psychical Research at Stanford University. In the 1920s,
Harvard University set up research programs with George Estabrooks and
L. T. Troland [7], [8]. It was in this framework that in 1930 William
McDougall invited Drs. J. B. and Louisa Rhine to join the Psychology
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Department at Duke University [9]. For more than thirty years, significant
work was carried out at Rhine's Duke University Laboratory. To examine
the existence of paranormal perception, he used the now-famous ESP cards
containing a boldly printed picture of a star, cross, square, circle, or
wavy lines.
Subjects were asked to name the order of these cards in a
freshly shuffled deck of twenty-five such cards. To test for telepathy,
an experimenter would look at the cards one at a time, and a subject suit-
ably separated from the sender would attempt to determine which card was
being viewed.
Dr. Rhine together with Dr. J. G. Pratt carried out thousands of ex-
periments of this type under widely varying conditions [10]. The statis-
tical results from these experiments indicated that some individuals did
indeed possess a paranormal perceptual ability in that it was possible to
obtain an arbitrarily high degree of improbability by continued testing of
a gifted subject.
The work of Rhine has been challenged on many grounds, however, includ-
ing accusations of improper handling of statistics, error, and fraud.
With
regard to the statistics, the general consensus of statisticians today is
that if fault is to be found in Rhine's work, it would have to be on other
than statistical grounds [11].
With regard to the accusations of fraud,
the most celebrated case of criticism of Rhine's work, that of G. R. Price
[12], ended 17 years after it began when the accusation of fraud was re-
tracted by its author in an article entitled "Apology to Rhine and Soal,"
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published in the same journal in which it was first put forward [13].
It should also be noted that parapsychological researchers themselves
:
recently exposed fraud in their own laboratory when they encountered it
[14].
At the end of the 1940s, Professor S. G. Soal, an English mathemati-
cian working with the SPR, had carried out hundreds of card guessing exper-
iments involving tens of thousands of calls [15].
Many of these experi-
ments were carried out over extended distances.
One of the most notable
experiments was conducted with Mrs. Gloria Stewart between London and
Antwerp. This experiment gave results whose probability of occurring by
chance were less than 10-8
.
With the publication of Modern Experiments
in Telepathy by Soal and Bateman (both of whom were statisticians), it
appeared that card guessing experiments produced significant results, on
the average. *
The most severe criticism of all this work, a criticism difficult to
defend against in principle, is that leveled by the well-known British
parapsychological critic C.E.M. Hansel [17], who began his examination of
the ESP hypothesis with the stated assumption, "In view of the a priori
arguments against it we know in advance that telepathy, etc., cannot oc-
cur."
Therefore, based on the "a priori unlikelihood" of ESP, Hansel's
*
Recently, some of the early Soal experiments have been criticized [16].
However, his long-distance experiments cited here were judged in a double-
blind fashion of the type that escaped the criticism of the early experi-
ments.
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examination of the literature centered primarily on the possibility of
fraud, by subjects or investigators. He reviewed in depth four experi-
ments which he regarded as providing the best evidence of ESP:
the Pearce-
Pratt distance series [18]; the Pratt-Woodruff [19] series, both conducted
at Duke; and Soal's work with Mrs. Stewart and Basil Shackleton [15], as
well as a more recent series by Soal and Bowden [20].
Hansel showed, in
each case, how fraud could have been committed (by the experimenters in the
Pratt-Woodruff and Soal-Bateman series, or by the subjects in the Pearce-
Pratt and Soal-Bowden experiments). He gave no direct evidence that fraud
was committed in these experiments, but said, "If the result could have
arisen through a trick, the experiment must be considered unsatisfactory
proof of ESP, whether or not it is finally decided that such a trick was
in fact used" [17, p. 18]. As discussed by Honorton in a review of the
field [21], Hansel's conclusion after 241 pages of careful scrutiny there-
fore was that these experiments were not "fraud-proof" and therefore in
principle could not serve as conclusive proof of ESP.
Even among the supporters of ESP research and its results, there re-
mained the consistent problem that many successful subjects eventually lost
their ability and their scores gradually drifted toward chance results.
This decline effect in no way erased their previous astronomical success;
but it was a disappointment since if paranormal perception is a natural
ability, one would like to see subjects improving with practice rather
than getting worse.
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One of the first successful attempts to overcome the decline effect
was in Czechoslovakia in the work of Dr. Milan Ryzl, a chemist with the
Institute of Biology of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Science and also
an amateur hypnotist [22].
Through the use of hypnosis, together with
feedback and reinforcement, he developed several outstanding subjects,
one of whom, Pavel Stepanek, has worked with experimenters around the
world for more than ten years.
Ryzl's pioneering work came as an answer to the questions raised by
the 1956 CIBA Foundation conference on extrasensory perception.
The CIBA
Chemical Company has annual meetings on topics of biological and chemical
interest, and that same year they assembled several
prominent para-
psychologists to have a state-of-the-art conference on ESP [23].
The con-
ference concluded that little progress would be made in parapsychology re-
search until a repeatable experiment could be found; namely, an experiment
that different experimenters could repeat at will and that would reliably
yield a statistically significant result.
Ryzl had by 1962 accomplished that goal.
His primary contribution
was a decision to interact with the subject as a person, to try to build
up his confidence and ability.
His protocol depended on "working with"
rather than "running" his subjects.
Ryzl's star subject, Pavel Stepanek,
has produced highly significant results with many contemporary researchers
[24]-[29].
In these experiments, he was able to tell with sixty percent
reliability whether a hidden card was green side or white side up, yield-
ing statistics of a million to one with only a thousand trials.
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As significant as such results are statistically, the information
channel is imperfect, containing noise along with the signal. When con-
sidering how best to use such a channel, one is led to the communication
theory concept of the introduction of redundancy as a means of coding a
message to combat the effects of a noisy channel [30]. A prototype experi-
ment by Ryzl using such techniques has proved to be successful. Ryzl had
an assistant select randomly five groups of three digits each.
These fif-
teen digits were then encoded into binary form and translated into a se-
quence of green and white cards in sealed envelopes. By means of repeated
calling and an elaborate majority vote protocol, Ryzl was able after 19,350
calls by Stepanek (averaging nine seconds per call) to correctly identify
all fifteen numbers, a result significant at p = 10
.
-15
The hit rate for
individual calls was 61.9 percent, 11,978 hits, and 7,372 misses [31] .*
The characteristics of such a channel can be specified in accordance
with the precepts of communication theory.
The bit rate associated with
the information channel is calculated from [30]
R = H(x) - H (x)
y
,
(1)
where H(x) is the uncertainty of the source message containing symbols
with a priori probability p.
Note added in proof. It has just come to our attention that a similar
procedure was used to transmit without error the word "peace" in Inter-
national Morse Code:
J. C. Carpenter, "Toward the Effective Utilization
of Enhanced Weak-Signal ESP Effects," presented at the annual meeting
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, New York,
N. Y. (January 27, 1975) .
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H(x) = - >
2
i=1
Pi 1og2 Pi
,
(2)
and H (x) is the conditional entropy based on the a posteriori probabil-
y
ities that a received signal was actually transmitted,
2
i,j=1
2 P (j)
H (x) = -
y
p(i, j) log2 1
·
(3)
For Stepanek's run, with p. = 1/2, p. (j) = 0.619, and an average time of
nine seconds per choice, we have a source uncertainty H(x) = 1 bit and a
calculated bit rate
R ≥ 0.041 bits/symbol
or
R/T = 0.0046 bits/s
[Since the 15-digit number (49.8 bits) actually was transmitted at the
rate of 2.9 x 10
-4
bits/s, an increase in bit rate by a factor of about
20 could be expected on the basis of a coding scheme more optimum than
that used in the experiments. (See, for example, Appendix A. ) ]
Dr. Charles Tart at the University of California has written exten-
sively on the so-called decline effect. He considers that having subjects
attempt to guess cards, or perform any other repetitious task for which
they receive no feedback, follows the classical technique for decondition-
ing any response. He thus considers card guessing "a technique for extin-
guishing psychic functioning in the laboratory" [32].
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Tart's injunctions of the mid-sixties were being heeded at Maimonides
Hospital, Brooklyn, New York, by a team of researchers that included Dr.
Montague Ullman, who was director of research for the hospital; Dr. Stanley
Krippner; and, later, Charles Honorton.
These three worked together for
several years on experiments on the occurrence of telepathy in dreams.
In the course of a half-dozen experimental series, they found in their
week-long sessions a number of subjects who had dreams that consistently
were highly descriptive of pictorial material that a remote sender was
looking at throughout the night.
This work is described in detail in
the experimenters' book Dream Telepathy [33].
Honorton is continuing
work of this free-response type in which the subject has no preconceived
idea' as to what the target may be.
In his more recent work with subjects in the waking state, Honorton
is providing homogeneous stimulation to the subject who is to describe
color slides viewed by another person in a remote room.
In this new work,
the subject listens to white noise via earphones and views an homogeneous
visual field imposed through the use of Ping-Pong ball halves to cover the
subject's eyes in conjunction with diffuse ambient illumination.
In this
so-called Ganzfeld setting, subjects are again able, now in the waking
state, to give correct and often highly accurate descriptions of the ma-
terial being viewed by the sender [34].
In Honorton's work and elsewhere it apparently has been the step away
from the repetitive, forced-choice experiment that has opened the way for
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a wide variety of ordinary people to demonstrate significant functioning
in the laboratory, without being bored into a decline effect.
This survey would be incomplete if we did not indicate certain aspects
of the current state of research in the USSR.
It is clear from trans-
lated documents and other sources that many laboratories in the USSR are
engaged in paranormal research [35].
Since the 1930s in the laboratory of L. Vasiliev (Leningrad Insti-
tute for Brain Research), there has been an interest in the use of tel-
epathy as a method of influencing the behavior of a person at a distance.
In Vasiliev's book Experiments in Mental Suggestion, he makes is very
clear that the bulk of his laboratory's experiments were aimed at long-
distance communication combined with a form of behavior modification;
for example, putting people at a distance to sleep through hypnosis [36].
Similar behavior modification types of experiments have been carried
out in recent times by I.M. Kogan, Chairman of the Bioinformation Section
of
the Moscow Board of the Popov Society.
He is a Soviet engineer who un-
til 1969 published extensively on the theory of telepathic communication
[36]-[40]. He was concerned with three principal kinds of experiments :
mental suggestion without hypnosis over short distances, in which the per-
cipient attempts to identify an object; mental awakening over short distances,
in which a subject is awakened from a hypnotic sleep at the "beamed" sug-
gestion from the hypnotist; and long-range (intercity) telepathic communica-
tion.
Kogan's main interest has been to quantify the channel capacity of
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the paranormal channel.
He finds that the bit rate decreases from 0.1
bits/s for laboratory experiments to 0.005 bits/s for his 1000-km inter-
city experiments.
In the USSR, serious consideration is given to the hypothesis that
telepathy is mediated by extremely low-frequency (ELF) electromagnetic
propagation.
(The pros and cons of this hypothesis are discussed in
Section V of this paper. ) In general, the entire field of paranormal
research in the USSR is part of a larger one concerned with the interac-
tion between electromagnetic fields and living organisms [41], [42].
At
the First International Congress on Parapsychology and Psychotronics in
Prague, Czechoslovakia in 1973, for example, Kholodov spoke at length
about the susceptibility of living systems to extremely low-level ac and dc
fields. He described conditioning effects on the behavior of fish resulting from
the application of 10 to 100 AW of RF to their tank [43].
The USSR take
these data seriously in that the Soviet safety requirements for steady-
state microwave exposure set limits at 10 uW/cm2, whereas the United States
has set a steady-state limit of 10 mW/cm2 [44]. Kholodov spoke also about
the nonthermal effects of microwaves on animals' central nervous systems.
His experiments were very carefully carried out and are characteristic
of a new dimension in paranormal research.
The increasing importance of this area in Soviet research was indi-
cated recently when the Soviet Psychological Association issued an unprece-
dented position paper calling on the Soviet Academy of Sciences to step up
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efforts in this area [45]. They recommended that the newly formed Psycho-
logical Institute within the Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Psycholog-
ical Institute of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences review the area and
consider the creation of a new laboratory within one of the institutes to
study persons with unusual abilities.
They also recommended a comprehen-
sive evaluation of experiments and theory by the Academy of Sciences'
Institute of Biophysics and Institute for the Problems of Information
Transmission.
The Soviet research, along with other behavioristically oriented
work, suggests that in addition to obtaining overt responses such as
verbalizations or key presses from a subject, it should be possible to
obtain objective evidence of information transfer by direct measurement
of physiological parameters of a subject.
Kamiya, Lindsley, Pribram,
Silverman, Walter, and others brought together to discuss physiological
methods to detect ESP functioning, have suggested that a whole range of
electroencephalogram (EEG) responses such as evoked potentials (EPs),
spontaneous EEG, and the contingent negative variation (CNV) might be
sensitive indicators of the detection of remote stimuli not mediated by
usual sensory processes [46].
Early experimentation of this type was carried out by Douglas Dean
at
the Newark College of Engineering. In his search for physiological
correlates of information transfer, he used the plethysmograph to measure
changes in the blood volume in a finger, a sensitive indicator of autonomic
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nervous system functioning [47]. A plethysmographic measurement was made
on the finger of a subject during telepathy experiments. A sender looked
at randomly selected target cards consisting of names known to the subject,
together with names unknown to him (selected at random from a telephone
book) .
The names of the known people were contributed by the subject and
were to be of emotional significance to him. Dean found significant changes
in the chart recording of finger blood volume when the remote sender was
looking at those names known to the subject as compared with those names
randomly chosen.
Three other experiments using the physiological approach have now
been published. The first work by Tart [48], a later work by Lloyd [49],
and most recently the work by the authors [4] all follow a similar procedure.
Basically, a subject is closeted in an electrically shielded room while
his EEG is recorded.
Meanwhile, in another laboratory, a second person
is stimulated from time to time, and the time of that stimulus is marked
on the magnetic tape recording of the subject's EEG.
The subject does
not know when the remote stimulus periods are as compared with the non-
stimulus periods.
With regard to choice of stimulus for our own experimentation, we
noted that in previous work others had attempted, without success, to
detect evoked potential changes in a subject's EEG in response to a single
stroboscopic flash stimulus observed by another subject [50].
In a discus-
sion of that experiment, Kamiya suggested that because of the unknown
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temporal characteristics of the information channel, it might be more
appropriate to use repetitive bursts of light to increase the probability
of detecting information transfer [51].
Therefore, in our study we chose
to use a stroboscopic flash train of 10-s duration as the remote stimulus.
In the design of the study, we assumed that the application of the
remote stimulus would result in responses similar to those obtained under
conditions of direct stimulation. For example, when an individual is stim-
ulated with a low-frequency (<30 Hz) flashing light, the EEG typically
shows a decrease in the amplitude of the resting rhythm and a driving of
the brain waves at the frequency of the flashes [52]. We hypothesized
that if we stimulated one subject in this manner (a putative sender), the
EEG of another subject in a remote room with no flash present (a receiver)
might show changes in alpha (9-11 Hz) activity and possibly an EEG driving
similar to that of the sender, or other coupling to the sender's EEG [53].
The receiver was seated in a visually opaque, acoustically and electrically
shielded, double-walled steel room about 7 m from the sender. The details
of the experiment, consisting of seven runs of thirty-six, 10-s trials each
(twelve periods each for 0-Hz, 6-Hz, and 16-Hz stimuli, randomly intermixed)
are presented in [4]. This experiment proved to be successful:
The receiv-
er's alpha activity (9-11 Hz) showed a significant reduction in average
power (-24%, p < 0.04) and peak power (-28%, p < 0.03) during 16-Hz flash
stimuli as compared with periods of no-flash stimulus.
[A similar response
was observed for 6-Hz stimuli (-12% in average power, -21% in peak power),
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shows an overlay of three averaged EEG spectra from one of the subject's
36 trial runs, displaying differences in alpha activity during the three
stimulus conditions.
Extensive control procedures were undertaken to de-
termine if these results were produced by system artifacts, electromag-
netic pickup (EMI), or by subtle cueing; the results were negative [4].
As part of the experimental protocol, the subject was asked to indi-
cate a conscious assessment for each trial (via telegraph key) as to the
nature of the stimulus; analysis showed these guesses to be at chance.
Thus, arousal as evidenced by significant alpha blocking occurred only
at the noncognitive level of physiological response. Hence, the experi-
ment provided direct physiological (EEG) evidence of perception of remote
stimuli even in the absence of overt cognitive response.
Whereas in our experiments we used a remote light flash as a stimulus,
Tart [48] in his work used an electrical shock to himself as sender, and
Lloyd [49] simply told the sender to think of a red triangle each time a
red warning light was illuminated within his view. Lloyd observed a con-
sistent evoked potential in his subjects; whereas in our experiments and
in Tart's, a reduction in amplitude and a desynchronization of alpha was
observed, an arousal response. (If a subject is resting in an alpha-
dominant condition and he is then stimulated, for example in any direct
manner, one will observe a decrease and desynchronization in alpha power.)
We consider that these combined results are evidence for the existence of
noncognitive awareness of remote happenings and that they have a profound
implication for paranormal research.
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1
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:
- arbitrary units
0
-6
A
+16
VOLTAGE
·
5 Hz
10 Hz
15 Hz
TA-760525-4
FIGURE 2
OCCIPITAL EEG FREQUENCY SPECTRA, 0 TO 20 Hz, OF
ONE SUBJECT (H.H.) ACTING AS RECEIVER SHOWING
AMPLITUDE CHANGES IN THE 9-11-Hz BAND AS A
FUNCTION OF STROBE FREQUENCY
Three Cases -- 0-, 6- and 16-Hz flashes (12 trial averages)
24
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III
SRI INVESTIGATIONS OF REMOTE VIEWING
Experimentation in remote viewing began during studies carried out
to investigate the abilities of a New York artist, Mr. Ingo Swann, when
he expressed the opinion that the insights gained during experiments at SRI
had strengthened his ability (verified in other research before he joined the SRI
program) to view remote locations [54].
To test Mr. Swann's assertion,
a pilot study was set up in which a series of targets from around the
globe were supplied by SRI personnel to the experimenters on a double-
blind basis.
Mr.
Swann's apparent
ability to describe correctly
details of buildings, roads, bridges, and the like indicated that it may
be possible for a subject by means of mental imagery to access and describe
randomly chosen geographical sites located several miles from the subject's
position and demarcated by some appropriate means.
Therefore, we set up a
research program to test the remote viewing hypothesis under rigidly con-
trolled scientific conditions.
In carrying out this program, we concentrated on what we considered
to be our principal responsibility -- to resolve under unambiguous conditions
the basic issue of whether or not this class of paranormal perception phe-
nomenon exists. At all times, we and others responsible for the overall
program took measures to prevent sensory leakage and subliminal cueing
and to prevent deception, whether intentional or unintentional.
To ensure
evaluations independent of belief structures of both experimenters and
judges, all experiments were carried out under a protocol, described below,
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in which target selection at the beginning of experiments and blind judg-
ing of results at the end of experiments were handled independently of
the researchers engaged in carrying out the experiments.
Six subjects, designated S1 through S6, were chosen for the study:
Three were considered as gifted or experienced subjects (S1 through S3),
and three were considered
as learners (S4 through S6) .
The a
priori dichotomy between gifted and learners was based on the experi-
enced group having been successful in other studies conducted before this
program and the learners group being inexperienced with regard to para-
normal experimentation.
The study consisted of a series of double-blind tests with local
targets in the San Francisco Bay Area so that several independent judges
could visit the sites to establish documentation.
The protocol was to
closet the subject with an experimenter at SRI and at an agreed-on time
to obtain from the subject a description of an undisclosed, remote site
being visited by a target team.
In each of the experiments, one of the
six program subjects served as remote-viewing subject, and SRI experimen-
ters served as a target demarcation team at the remote location chosen in
a double-blind protocol as follows.
In each experiment, SRI management randomly chose a target location
from a list of targets within a 30-minute driving time from SRI; the tar-
get location selected was kept blind to subject and experimenters. The
target pool consisted of more than 100 target locations chosen from a
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target-rich environment. (Before the experimental series began, the Direc-
tor of the Information Science and Engineering Division, not otherwise
associated with the experiment, established the set of locations as the
target pool which remained known only to him. The target locations were printed
on cards sealed in envelopes and kept in the SRI Division office safe.
They
were available only with the personal assistance of the Division Director
who issued a single random-number selected target card that constituted
the traveling orders for that experiment. )
In detail:
To begin the experiment, the subject was closeted with
an experimenter at SRI to wait 30 minutes before beginning a narrative
description of the remote location.
A second experimenter then obtained
from the Division Director a target location from a set of traveling orders
previously prepared and randomized by the Director and kept under his con-
trol.
The target demarcation team, consisting of two to four SRI experi-
menters, then proceeded by automobile directly to the target without any
communication with the subject or experimenter remaining behind.
The ex-
perimenter remaining with the subject at SRI was kept ignorant of both the
particular target and the target pool so as to eliminate the possibility
of cueing (overt or subliminal) and to allow him freedom in questioning
the subject to clarify his descriptions.
The demarcation team remained
at the target site for an agreed-on 15-minute period following the 30
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minutes allotted for travel .*
During the observation period, the remote
viewing subject was asked to describe his impressions of the target site
into a tape recorder and to make any drawings he thought appropriate. An
informal comparison was then made when the demarcation team returned, and
the subject was taken to the site to provide feedback.
A.
Subject Sl: Experienced
To begin the series, Mr. Pat Price, a former California police com-
missioner and city councilman, participated as a subject in nine experi-
ments. In general, Price's ability to describe correctly buildings, docks,
roads, gardens, and the like, including structural materials, color, am-
ambience, and activity -- often in great detail -- indicated the functioning
of a remote perceptual ability.
A
Hoover Tower target, for example, was
recognized and named by name.
Nonetheless, in general, the descriptions
contained inaccuracies as well as correct statements.
A typical example
is indicated by the subject's drawing shown in Figure 3 in which he cor-
rectly described a park-like area containing two pools of water: one
rectangular, 60 x 89 ft (actual dimensions 75 x 100 ft) ; the other circu-
lar, diameter 120 ft (actual diameter 110 ft) .
He incorrectly indicated
the function, however, as water filtration rather than recreational swim-
ming.
(We often observe essentially correct descriptions of basic elements
*
The first subject (S1) was allowed 30 minutes for his descriptions, but
it was found that he fatigued and had little comment after the first 15
minutes. The viewing time therefore was reduced to 15 minutes for sub-
jects S2 through S6.
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WILD GLAS
AVE.
2 harse -
THANKS
ELECT.
DIST.
TENNIS COURTS
TANKS
75
110
SURENG; BOOKS
ABEL GREEN
100
PLAY
GROUNDS
POOL HOUSE
CONCRETE BLOCK
I SERVICE
YARD
SERVICE YARD!
Block
29
FIRE
STATION
T
PICNIC AREA
E
L
RD.
SUN L
-
C
(a)
(b)
TA-760525-1
FIGURE 3
SWIMMING POOL COMPLEX AS REMOTE VIEWING TARGET
(a) City map of target location, (b) Drawing by Price (S1).
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SALES of WATER - SPRAY
RAINBOW Effects
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and patterns coupled with incomplete or erroneous analysis of function. )
As can be seen from his drawing, he also included some elements, such as
the tanks shown in the upper right, that are not present at the target
site.
We also note an apparent left-right reversal, often observed in
paranormal perception experiments.
To obtain a numerical evaluation of the accuracy of the remote view-
ing experiment, the experimental results were subjected to independent
judging on a blind basis by an SRI research analyst not otherwise associ-
ated with the research.
The subject's response packets, which contained
the nine typed unedited transcripts of the tape-recorded narratives along
with any associated drawings, were unlabeled and presented in random order.
While standing at each target location, visited in turn, the judge was re-
quired to blind rank order the nine packets on a scale 1 to 9 (best to
worst match).
The statistic of interest is the sum of ranks assigned to
the target-associated transcripts, lower values indicating better matches.
For nine targets, the sum of ranks could range from nine to eighty-one.
The probability that a given sum of ranks s or less will occur by chance
is given by [55]
Prob (s or less) = = > > (-1)&(2)(
i=n l=o
S
k
Vi-NA-1
n-1
where s = obtained sum of ranks, N = number of assignable ranks, n = num-
ber of occasions on which rankings were made, and & takes on values from
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zero to the largest positive integer k in (i-n)/N. (Table 1 is a table to
enable easy application of the above formula to those cases in which N = n. )
The sum in this case, which included seven direct hits out of the nine,
was 16 (see Table 2), a result significant at p = 2.9 x 10
-5
by exact
calculation.
In Experiments 3, 4, and 6 through 9, the subject was secured in a
double-walled, copper-screen Faraday cage. The Faraday cage provides 120
dB attenuation for plane wave radio frequency radiation over a range of
15 kHz to 1 GHz. For magnetic fields, the attenuation is 68 dB at 15 kHz
and decreases to 3 dB at 60 Hz. The results of rank order judging (Table
2) indicate that the use of Faraday cage electrical shielding does not
prevent high quality descriptions from being obtained.
As a backup judging procedure, a panel of five additional SRI scien-
tists not otherwise associated with the research were asked simply to
blind match the unedited typed transcripts (with associated drawings) gen-
erated by the remote viewer against the nine target locations which they
independently visited in turn. The transcripts were unlabeled and pre-
sented in random order. A correct match consisted of a transcript of a
given date being matched to the target of that date.
Instead of the ex-
pected number of 1 match each per judge, the number of correct matches
obtained by the five judges was 7, 6, 5, 3, and 3, respectively. Thus,
rather than the expected total number of 5 correct matches from the judges,
24 such matches were obtained.
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TABLE 1
Critical Values of Sums of Ranks for Preferential Matching
Number of
Assignable
--
Probability (one-tailed) that the Indicated Sum of Ranks or Less Would Occur by Chance
Ranks (N)
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.04
0.025
0.01
0.005
0.002
0.001
0.0005
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
4
7
6
5
5
5
4
4
5
11
10
9
8
8
7
6
6
5
5
6
16
15
13
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
7
22
20
18
18
17
15
14
12
12
11
9
8
8
29
27
24
24
22
20
19
17
16
15
13
11
9
8
9
37
34
31
30
29
26
24
22
21
20
17
14
12
10
10
46
42
39
38
36
33
31
29
27
25
22
19
16
13
11
56
51
48
47
45
41
38
36
34
32
28
24
20
17
12
67
61
58
56
54
49
47
43
41
39
35
30
25
22
This table applies only to those special cases in which the number of occasions on which objects are
being ranked (n) is equal to the number of assignable ranks (N). Each entry represents the largest
number that is significant at the indicated p-level.
Source:
R. L. Morris [55]
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TABLE 2
Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts Associated
with Each Target Location for Experienced Subject Price (S1)
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
Hoover Tower, Stanford
3.4
1
Baylands Nature Preserve, Palo Alto
6.4
1
Radio telescope, Portola Valley
6.4
1
Marina, Redwood City
6.8
1
Bridge toll plaza, Fremont
14.5
6
Drive-in theater, Palo Alto
5.1
1
Arts and Crafts Plaza, Menlo Park
1.9
1
Catholic Church, Portola Valley
8.5
3
Swimming pool complex, Palo Alto
3.4
1
Total sum of ranks
16
(p=2.9x10-5)
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B.
Subject S4: Learner
This experiment was designed to be a replication of our previous
experiment with Price, the first replication attempted. The subject for
this experiment was Mrs. Hella Hammid, a gifted professional photographer.
She was selected for this series on the basis of her successful performance
as a percipient in the EEG experiment described earlier. Outside of that
interaction, she had no previous experience with apparent paranormal func-
tioning.
At the time we began working with Mrs. Hammid, she had no strong
feelings about the likelihood of her ability to succeed in this task.
This was in contrast to both Ingo Swann who had come to our laboratory
fresh from a lengthy and apparently successful series of experiments
with Dr. Gertrude Schmeidler at City College of New York [56] and Pat
Price who felt that he used his remote viewing ability in his everyday
life.
In comparison with the latter two, many people are more influenced
by their environment and are reluctant under public scrutiny to attempt
activities that are generally thought to be impossible. Society often
provides inhibition and negative feedback to the individual who might
otherwise have explored his own nonregular perceptual ability. We all
share an historical tradition of "the stoning of prophets and the burning
of witches" and, in more modern times, the hospitalization of those who
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claim to perceive things that the majority do not admit to seeing.
There -
fore, in addition to maintaining scientific rigor, one of our primary
tasks as researchers is to provide an environment in which the subject
feels safe to explore the possibility of paranormal perception.
With a
new subject, we also try to stress the nonuniqueness of the ability be-
cause from our experience paranormal functioning appears to be a latent
ability that all subjects can articulate to some degree.
Because of Mrs. Hammid's artistic background, she was capable of
drawing and describing visual images that she could not identify in any
cognitive or analytic sense. When the target demarcation team went to
a target location which was a pedestrian overpass, the subject said that
she saw "a kind of trough up in the air," which she indicated in the upper
part of her drawing in Figure 4. She went on to explain that "If you stand
where they are standing you will see something like this," indicating the
nested squares at the bottom of Figure 4. As it turned out, a judge stand-
ing where she indicated would have a view closely resembling what she had
drawn, as can be seen from the accompanying photographs of the target loca-
tion.
It needs to be emphasized, however, that judges did not have access
to our photographs of the site, used here for illustrative purposes only,
but rather they proceeded to each of the target locations by list.
In another experiment, the subject described seeing "an open barnlike
structure with a pitched roof." She also saw a "kind of slatted side to
the structure making light and dark bars on the wall."
Her drawing and a
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...
PEDESTRIAN OVERPASS TARGET
-
Light
CCCC
SA-3183-5
FIGURE 4
SUBJECT HAMMID (S4) DRAWING, DESCRIBED AS "SOME KIND OF DIAGONAL
TROUGH UP IN THE AIR"
=
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photograph of the associated bicycle shed target are shown in Figure 5.
(Subjects are encouraged to make drawings of anything they visualize and
associate with the remote location because drawings they make are in gen-
eral more accurate than their verbal description. )
As in the original series with Price, the results of the nine-
experiment series were submitted for independent judging on a blind basis
by an SRI research analyst not otherwise associated with the research.
While at each target location, visited in turn, the judge was required to
blind rank order the nine unedited typed manuscripts of the tape-recorded
narratives, along with any associated drawings generated by the remote
viewer, on a scale 1 to 9 (best to worst match). The sum of ranks as-
signed to the target-associated transcripts in this case was 13, a result
significant at p = 1.8 x 10-0
by exact calculation (see Table 1 and dis-
cussion), and included five direct hits and four second ranks (Table 3).
Again, as a backup judging procedure, a panel of five additional
judges not otherwise associated with the research were asked simply
to blind match the unedited typed transcripts and associated drawings
generated by the remote viewer, against the nine target locations which
they independently visited in turn. A correct match consisted of a tran-
script of a given date being matched to the target of that date. Instead
of the expected number of 1 match each per judge, the number of correct
matches obtained by the five judges was 5, 3, 3, 2, and 2, respectively.
Thus, rather than the expected total number of 5 correct matches from the
judges, 15 such matches were obtained.
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1
-
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BICYCLE SHED TARGET
DETAIL OF BICYCLE SHED
1
Wood
Show
wall
..... ....
SA-3183-19
FIGURE 5 SUBJECT HAMMID (S4) RESPONSE TO BICYCLE SHED TARGET DESCRIBED
AS AN OPEN "BARN-LIKE BUILDING" WITH "SLATS ON THE SIDES" AND A
"PITCHED ROOF"
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1
TABLE 3
Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts Associated
with Each Target Location for Learner Subject Hammid (S4)
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
Methodist Church, Palo Alto
1.9
1
Ness Auditorium, Menlo Park
0.2
1
Merry-go-round, Palo Alto
3.4
1
Parking garage, Mountain View
8.1
2
SRI International Courtyard, Menlo Park
0.2
1
Bicycle shed, Menlo Park
0.1
2
Railroad trestle bridge, Palo Alto
1.3
2
Pumpkin patch, Menlo Park
1.3
1
Pedestrian overpass, Palo Alto
5.0
2
Total sum of ranks
13
(p=1.8x10-6)
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C.
Subjects S2 and S3:
Experienced
Having completed a series of 18 remote-viewing experiments, 9 each with
experienced subject S1 (Price) and learner S4 (Hammid), additional replica-
tion experiments, four with each subject, were carried out with experienced
subjects S2 (Elgin) and S3 (Swann) and learners S5 and S6. To place the
judging on a basis comparable to that used with S1 and S4, the four tran-
scripts each of experienced subjects S2 and S3 were combined into a group
of eight for rank order judging to be compared with the similarly combined
results of the learners S5 and S6.
The series with S2 (Elgin, an SRI research analyst) provided a further
example of the dichotomy between verbal and drawing responses.
(As with
medical literature, case histories often are more illuminating than the
summary of results. ) The experiment described here was the third conducted
with this subject.
It was a demonstration experiment for a government
visitor who had heard of our work and wanted to evaluate our experimental
protocol.
In the laboratory, the subject, holding a bearing compass at arm's
length, began the experiment by indicating the direction of the target
demarcation team correctly to within five degrees. (In all four experi-
ments with this subject, he has always been within ten degrees of the
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correct direction in this angular assessment. )
The subject then generated
a 15 minute tape-recorded description and the drawings shown in Figure 6.
In discussing the drawings, Elgin indicated that he was uncer-
tain as to the action, but had the impression that the demarcation team
In fact,
was located at a museum (known to him) in a particular park.
the target was a tennis court located in that park about 90 meters from
the indicated museum.
Once again, we note the characteristic (discussed
earlier) of a resemblance between the target site and certain gestalt ele-
ments of the subject's response, especially in regard to the drawings,
coupled with incomplete or erroneous analysis of the significances.
None -
theless when rank ordering transcripts 1 through 8 at the site, the judge
ranked this transcript as 2. This example illustrates a continuing obser-
vation that most of the correct information related to us by subjects is
of a nonanalytic nature pertaining to shape, form, color, and material
rather than to function or name.
A second example from this group, generated by S3 (Swann), indicates
the level of proficiency that can be attained with practice.
In the two
years since we first started working with Swann, he has been studying the
problem of separating the external signal from the internal noise.
In our
most recent experiments, he dictates two lists for us to record.
One list
contains objects that he "sees, " but does not think are located at the
remote scene.
A second list contains objects that he thinks are at the
scene.
In our evaluation, he has made much progress in this most essential
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TARGET-TENNIS COURTS
42
Windows
P
SA-3183-18
FIGURE 6
SUBJECT ELGIN (S2) DRAWINGS IN RESPONSE TO TENNIS COURT TARGET
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ability to separate memory and imagination from paranormal inputs.
This
is the key to bringing the remote viewing channel to fruition with re-
gard to its potential usefulness.
The quality of transcript that can be generated by this process is evi-
dent from the results of the most recent experiment with Swann. The target
location chosen by the usual double-blind protocol was the Palo Alto City
Hall.
Swann described a tall building with vertical columns and "set in"
windows. His sketch, together with the photograph of the site, is shown
in Figure 7. He said there was a fountain, "but I don't hear it." At the
time the target team was at the City Hall during the experiment, the foun-
tain was not running. He also made an effort to draw a replica of the de-
signs in the pavement in front of the building, and correctly indicated
the number of trees (four) in the sketch.
For the entire series of eight, four each from S2 and S3, the numer -
ical evaluation based on blind rank ordering of transcripts at each site
was significant at p = 3.8 x 10-4
and included three direct hits and
three second ranks for the target-associated transcripts (see Table 4).
D.
Subjects S5 and S6:
Learners
To complete the series, four experiments each were carried out with
learner subjects S5 and S6, a man and woman on the SRI professional staff.
The results in this case, taken as a group, did not differ significantly
from chance. For the series of eight (judged as a group of seven since
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Picture of the minesture quegomese
from yesterday?
flach of green-
Savona
13 No0 29.
10:40 am.
trees?
a corridor & come set .
a wall hetund the trees
lawns.
anopen fuld.
an enclosed area of some sort.
a quad .
I long building
1
afountain.
but I don't have # .
walk tras
lawn
wall
cross weeks .
basket ball avant.
fuld.
open
Gadeliens
Sector
TA-760582-21
TARGET-PALO ALTO CITY HALL
CROSS
walks
?
SA-3183-14
FIGURE 7
SUBJECT SWANN (S3) RESPONSE TO CITY HALL TARGET
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TABLE 4
Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts Associated
with Each Target Location for Experienced Subjects
Elgin (S2) and Swann (S3)
Subject
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
S2
BART Station (Transit System), Fremont
16.1
1
S2
Shielded room, SRI, Menlo Park
0.1
2
S2
Tennis court, Palo Alto
3.4
2
S2
Golf course bridge, Stanford
3.4
2
S3
City Hall, Palo Alto
2.0
1
S3
Miniature golf course, Menlo Park
3.0
1
S3
Kiosk in park, Menlo Park
0.3
3
S3
Baylands Nature Preserve, Palo Alto
6.4
3
Total sum of ranks
15
(p=3.8x10-4)
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one target came up twice, once for each subject), the numerical evaluation
based on blind rank ordering of transcripts at each site was nonsignificant
at p = 0.08, even though there were two direct hits and two second ranks
out of the seven (see Table 5).
One of the direct hits, which occurred with subject S6 in her first
experiment, provides an example of the "first-time effect" that has been
rigorously explored and is well-known to experimenters in the field [57].
The outbound experimenter obtained by random protocol from the pool, a
target blind to the experimenter with the subject, as is our standard pro-
cedure, and proceeded to the location.
The subject, a mathematician in the
computer science laboratory who had no previous experience in remote view-
ing, began to describe a large square with a fountain. Four minutes into
the experiment she recognized the location and correctly identified it by
name (see Figure 8). (It should be noted that in the area from which the
target locations were drawn there are other fountains as well, some of
which were in the target pool. ) As an example of the style of the nar-
ratives generated during remote viewing with inexperienced subjects and
of the part played by the experimenter remaining with the subject in such
a case, we have included the entire unedited text of this experiment as
Appendix B.
E.
Normal and Paranormal:
Use of Unselected Subjects in Remote Viewing
After more than a year of following the experimental protocol described
above and observing that even inexperienced subjects generated results
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TABLE 5
Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts Associated
with Each Target Location for Learner Subjects S5 and S6
Subject
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
S5
Pedestrian overpass, Palo Alto
5.0
3
S5
Railroad trestle bridge, Palo Alto
1.3
6
S5
Windmill, Portola Valley
8.5
2
S5, S6
White Plaza, Stanford (2)
3.8
1
S6
Airport, Palo Alto
5.5
2
S6
Kiosk in Park, Menlo Park
0.3
5
S6
Boathouse, Stanford
4.0
1
Total sum of ranks
20
(p=0.08, NS)
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WHITE PLAZA AT STANFORD UNIVERSITY
1
.
of
somewhat way
.
some landscaping
grass
small- medium trees
afew flower
SUBJECT DREW WHAT SHE CALLED
"CURVY BENCHES" AND THEN
ANNOUNCED CORRECTLY THAT THE
PLACE WAS "WHITE PLAZA AT STANFORD"
SA-3183-4
FIGURE 8
SUBJECT (S6) DRAWING OF WHITE PLAZA, STANFORD UNIVERSITY
=
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better than expected, we initiated a series of experiments to explore fur-
ther whether individuals other than putative "psychics" can demonstrate
the remote viewing ability.
To test this idea, we have a continuing pro-
gram to carry out additional experiments of the outdoor type with new
subjects whom we have no a priori reason to believe have paranormal per-
ceptual ability. To date we have collected data from five experiments
with two individuals in this category:
a man and a woman who were visit-
ing government scientists interested in observing our experimental proto-
cols. The motivation for these particular experiments was two-fold.
First,
the experiments provide data that indicate the level of proficiency that
can be expected from unselected volunteers.
Second, when an individual
observes a successful demonstration experiment involving another person
as subject, it inevitably occurs to him that perhaps chicanery is involved.
We have found the most effective way to settle this issuefor the obser-
ver is to have the individual himself act as a subject so as to obtain
personal experience against which our reported results can be evaluated.
The first visitor (V1) was invited to participate as a subject in a
a three-experiment series.
All three experiments contained elements de-
scriptive of the associated target locations; the quality of response
increased with practice.
The third response is shown in Figure 9, where
again the pattern elements in the drawing appeared to be a closer match
than the subject's analytic interpretation of the target object as a cupola.
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white
NOV 8 1374 NEBA
some sort of structure of
thing on top of agendage
rod in a general sense lite
Grounded done-type top
lightening rod
50
TOP VIEW
medium danknothing
cod blackx brassy
MERRY-GO-ROUND TARGET
SA-3183-17
FIGURE 9
SUBJECT (V1) DRAWING OF MERRY-GO-ROUND TARGET
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The second visitor [V2] participated as a subject in two experiments.
In his first experiment, he generated one of the higher signal-to-noise
results we have observed. He began his narrative "There is a red A-frame
building and next to it is a large yellow thing [a tree -- Editor].
Now
further left there is another A-shape. It looks like a swing-set, but it
is pushed down in a gully so I can't see the swings." [All correct. ]
He then went on to describe a lock on the front door that he said "looks
like it's made of laminated steel, so it must be a Master lock." [Also
correct. ]
For the series of five -- three from the first subject and two from
the second, the numerical evaluation based on blind rank ordering of the
transcripts at each site was significant at p = 0.017 and included three
direct hits and one second rank for the target-associated transcripts.
(See Table 6).
Observations with unselected subjects such as those described above
indicate that remote viewing may be a latent and widely distributed
perceptual ability.
F.
Technology Series:
Short-Range Remote Viewing
Because remote viewing is a perceptual ability, we considered it
important to obtain data on its resolution capabilities. To accomplish
this, we turned to the use of indoor technological targets.
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TABLE 6
Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts Associated
with Each Target Location for Visitor Subjects V1 and V2
Subject
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
V1
Bridge over stream, Menlo Park
0.3
1
V1
Baylands Nature Preserve, Palo Alto
6.4
2
V1
Merry-go-round, Palo Alto
3.4
1
V2
Windmill, Portola Valley
8.5
1
V2
Apartment swimming pool, Mountain View
9.1
3
Total sum of ranks
8
(p=0.017)
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Twelve experiments were carried out with five different subjects,
two of whom were visiting government scientists.
They were told that one
of the experimenters would be sent by random protocol to a laboratory
within the SRI complex and that he would interact with the equipment or
apparatus at that location.
It was further explained that the experimenter
remaining with the subject was, as usual, kept ignorant of the contents
of the target pool to prevent cueing during questioning.
(Unknown to
subjects, targets in the pool were used with replacement; one of the
goals of this particular experiment was to obtain multiple responses to
a given target to investigate whether correlation of a number of subject
responses would provide enhancement of the signal-to-noise ratio. ) The
subject was asked to describe the target both verbally (tape recorded) and
by means of drawings during a time-synchronized 15-minute interval in
which the outbound experimenter interacted in an appropriate manner with
the equipment in the target area.
In the twelve experiments, seven targets were used:
a drill press,
Xerox machine, video terminal, chart recorder, four-state random number
generator, machine shop, and typewriter.
£
Three of these were used twice
(drill press, video terminal, and typewriter) and one (Xerox machine)
came up three times in our random selection procedure.
Comparisons of the targets and subject drawings for three of the
multiple-response cases, the typewriter, Xerox machine, and video term-
inal, are shown in Figures 10, 11, and 12. As is apparent from these
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MEMO
TECHNOLOGY SERIES
TYPEWRITER TARGET
seems to resolve into 2 ports
one sitting on top of the arter-
a machine in 2 parts.
white on the side.
see the flor now - linge
11.23
slits of slots
levers
metal
huff colored
420kms
-dark was
dak?
colony
the lights med be inside
a green crescut.
SUBJECT SWANN (S3) RESPONSE
SUBJECT HAMMID (S4) RESPONSE
TA-760525-5
:
FIGURE 10 DRAWINGS OF A TYPEWRITER TARGET BY TWO SUBJECTS
:
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TARGET LOCATION: XEROX MACHINE
(TECHNOLOGY SERIES)
TO ADD INTEREST TO TARGET
LOCATION EXPERIMENTER WITH
HIS HEAD BEING XEROXED
55
(2)
rolling along
table
it turns ?
dark brown or mation
4
000000
-
5.2
TA-760525-6
FIGURE 11
DRAWINGS BY THREE SUBJECTS (S2, S3, AND V3) FOR XEROX MACHINE TARGET
When subject (V3) was asked to describe the square at upper left of response on the right,
the subject said, "There was this predominent light source which might have been a window,
and a working surface which might have been the sill, or a working surface or desk." Earlier
the subject had said, "I have the feeling that there is something silhouetted against the window."
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TARGET: VIDEO MONITOR FOR TEXT EDITING (TECHNOLOGY SERIES)
Side
all mat Black
56
V-leves
6
Tan
Bright
-Window
0
10
Knobs
TI Silent 200?
-
SUBJECT (S4) DRAWING OF "BOX WITH LIGHT COMING OUT
OF IT . . . PAINTED FLAT BLACK AND IN
THE MIDDLE OF THE ROOM"
SECOND SUBJECT (V2) SAW A COMPUTER TERMINAL
WITH RELAY RACKS IN THE BACKGROUND
SA-3183-8
FIGURE 12
DRAWING BY TWO SUBJECTS OF A VIDEO MONITOR TARGET
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illustrations alone, the experiments provide circumstantial evi-
dence for an information channel of useful bit rate.
This includes
experiments in which visiting government scientists participated as sub-
jects (Xerox machine and video terminal) to observe the protocol.
In
general, it appears that use of multiple-subject responses to a single
target provides better signal-to-noise ratio than target identification
by a single individual.
This conclusion is borne out by the judging
described below.
Given that in general the drawings constitute the most accurate
portion of a subject's description, in the first judging procedure a
judge was asked simply to blind match only the drawings (i. e., without
tape transcripts) to the targets.
Multiple subject responses to a given
target were stapled together, and thus seven subject-drawing response
packets were to be matched to the seven different targets for which
drawings were made.
The judge did not have access to our photographs
of the target locations, used for illustration purposes only, but rather
proceeded to each of the target locations by list.
While standing at
each target location, the judge was required to rank order the seven
subject-drawing response packets (presented in random order) on a scale
1 to 7 (best to worst match). For seven targets, the sum of ranks could
range from 7 to 49. The sum in this case, which included 1 direct hit
and 4 second ranks out of the 7 (see Table 7) was 18, a result signifi-
cant at p = 0.036.
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TABLE 7
Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Subject Drawings
Associated with Each Target Location
Subject
Target
Rank of
Associated
Drawings
S3, S4
Drill press
2
S2, S3, V3
Xerox machine
2
S4, V2
Video terminal
1
S3
Chart recorder
2
S4
Random number generator
6
S4
Machine shop
3
S3, S4
Typewriter
2
Total sum of ranks
18
(p=0.036)
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In the second more detailed effort at evaluation, a visiting scien-
tist selected at random one of the 12 data packages (a drill press
experiment), sight unseen and submitted it for independent analysis to
an engineer with a request for an estimate as to what was being described.
The analyst, blind as to the target and given only the subject's taped
narrative and drawing (Figure 13), was able, from the subject's descrip-
tion alone, to correctly classify the target as a "man-sized vertical
boring machine."
G.
Summary of Remote Viewing Results
1.
Discussion
The descriptions supplied by the subjects in the experiments
involving remote viewing of natural targets or laboratory apparatus,
although containing inaccuracies, were sufficiently accurate to permit
the judges to differentiate among various targets to the degree indicated.
A summary tabulation of the statistical evaluations of these fifty-one
experiments with nine subjects is presented in Table 8. The overall
result, evaluated conservatively on the basis of a judging procedure that
ignores transcript quality beyond that necessary to rank order the data
packets (vastly underestimating the statistical significance of individual
descriptions), clearly indicates the presence of an information channel
of useful bit rate. Furthermore, it appears that the principal difference
between experienced subjects and inexperienced volunteers is not that the latter
never exhibit the faculty, but rather that their results are simply less
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BELT DRIVE FOR DRILL
PRESS (CAN BE SEEN ONLY
FROM ABOVE MACHINE)
TARGET: DRILL PRESS
(TECHNOLOGY SERIES)
Light canvas .
(RestoPU
What
Black.
.....
SA-3183-7
FIGURE 13
SUBJECT (S4) DRAWING OF DRILL PRESS SHOWING BELT DRIVE, STOOL AND
"VERTICAL GRAPH THAT GOES UP AND DOWN"
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TABLE 8
Summary :
Remote Viewing
Subject
Number of
Experiments
p-Value, Rank
Order Judging
With natural targets
S1 (experienced)
9
2.9 × 10-5
S2 and S3 (experienced)
8
3.8 x 10
S4 (learner)
9
1.8 x 10-6
S5 and S6 (learners)
8
0.08 (NS)
V1 and V2 (learners/visitors)
5
5
0.017
With technology targets
S2, S3, S4, V2, V3
12
0.036
-4
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reliable, more sporadic. Nevertheless, as described earlier, individual
transcripts from the inexperienced group of subjects number among some of
the best obtained.
Such observations indicate a hypothesis that remote
viewing may be a latent and widely distributed perceptual ability.
Thus, the primary achievement of the SRI program was the elici-
tation of high-quality remote viewing from individuals who agreed to act
as subjects. Criticism of this claim could in principle be put forward
on the basis of three potential flaws:
(1) the study could involve
naivete in protocol that permits various forms of cueing, intentional or
unintentional; (2) the experiments discussed could be selected out of a
larger pool of experiments of which many are of poorer quality; and (3)
data for the reported experiments could be edited to show only the matching
elements, the nonmatching elements being discarded.
All three criticisms, however, are invalid. First, with regard to
cueing, the use of double-blind protocols ensures that none of the persons
in contact with the subject can be aware of the target. Second, selection
of experiments for reporting did not take place; every experiment was
entered as performed on a master log and is included in the statistical
evaluations. Third, data associated with a given experiment remain un-
edited; all experiments are tape recorded and all data are included unedited
in the data package to be judged and evaluated.
In the process of judging -- attempting to match transcripts against
targets on the basis of the information in the transcripts -- some patterns
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and regularities in the transcript descriptions became evident, par-
ticularly regarding individual styles in remote viewing and in the per-
ceptual form of the descriptions given by the subjects.
These patterns
and the judging procedure are discussed below.
Styles of Response -- The fifty-one transcripts were taken from
nine different subjects. Comparing the transcripts of one subject with
those of another revealed that each person tended to focus on certain
aspects of the remote target complex and to exclude others, so that each
had an individual pattern of response, like a signature.
Subject S3, for example, frequently responded with topographical
descriptions, maps, and architectural features of the target locations.
Subject S2 often focused on the behavior of the remote experimenter or
the sequence of actions he carried out at the target. The transcripts
of subject S-4, more than those of other subjects, had descriptions of the
feel of the location, and experiential or sensory gestalts -- for example,
light/dark elements in the scene; indoor/outdoor and enclosed/open
distinctions.
Prominent features of Sl's transcripts were detailed
descriptions of what the target persons were concretely experiencing,
seeing, or doing -- for example, standing on asphalty blacktop overlooking
water; looking at a purple iris.
The range of any individual subject's responses was wide.
Any
one might draw a map or describe the mood of the remote experimenter,
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but the consistency of each subject's overall approach suggests that just
as individual descriptions of a directly viewed scene would differ, so
these differences also occur in remote viewing processes.
Nature of the Descriptions -- The concrete descriptions that
appear most commonly in transcripts are at the level of subunits of the
overall scene.
For example, when the target was a Xerox copy machine, the
responses included (S2) a rolling object (the moving light), or dials and
a cover that is lifted (S3), but the machine as a whole was not identified
by name or function.
In a few transcripts, the subjects correctly identified and
named the target.
In the case of a computer terminal, the subject (V2)
apparently perceived the
terminal and the relay racks behind it.
In
the case of targets which were Hoover Tower and White Plaza, the subjects
($1 and S6, respectively) seemed to identify the locations through anal-
ysis of their initial images of the elements of the target.
There were also occasional incorrect identifications. Gestalts
were incorrectly named; for example, swimming pools in a park were iden-
tified as water storage tanks at a water filtration plant (Sl).
The most common perceptual level was thus an intermediate one --
the individual elements and items that make up the target.
This is sug-
gestive of a scanning process that takes sample perceptions from within
the overall environment.
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When the subjects tried to make sense out of these fragmentary
impressions, they often resorted to metaphors or constructed an image with
a kind of perceptual inference, From a feeling of the target as an
"august" and "solemn" building, a subject (S4) said it might be a library:
it was a church. A pedestrian overpass above a freeway was described as
a conduit (S4). A rapid transit station, elevated above the countryside,
was associated with an observatory (S2). These responses seem to be the
result of attempts to process partial information:
similarly, this occurs
in other parapsychological experiments. These observations are compatible
with the hypotheses that information received in a putative remote viewing
mode is processed piecemeal in pattern form (consistent with a low bit
rate process, but not necessarily requiring it); and the errors arise in
the processes of attempted integration of the data into larger patterns
directed toward verbal labeling.
When the subjects augmented the verbal transcripts with drawings
or sketches, these often expressed the target elements more accurately
than the verbal descriptions. Thus, the drawings tended to correspond
with the targets more clearly and precisely than the words of the transcript.
The descriptions given by the subjects sometimes went beyond
what the remote experimenter experienced, at least consciously. For
example, one subject (S4) described and drew a belt drive at the top of
a drill press that was invisible even to the remote experimenter who was
operating the machine; another subject (Sl) described a number of items
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behind shrubbery and thus not visible to members of the demarcation
team at the site.
Curiously, objects in motion at the remote site were rarely
mentioned in the transcript.
For example, trains crossing the railroad
trestle target were not described, though the remote experimenter stood
very close to them.
Also in a few cases, the subject descriptions were inaccurate
regarding size of structures.
A 20-foot courtyard separating two build-
ings was described as 200 feet wide, and a small shed was expanded to a
barn-like structure.
Blind Judging of Transcripts -- The judging procedure entailed
examining the transcripts for a given experimental series and attempting
to match the transcripts with the correct targets on the basis of their
correspondences. The transcripts varied from coherent and accurate
descriptions to mixtures of correspondences and noncorrespondences.
Since
the judge did not know a priori which elements of the descriptions were
correct or incorrect, the task was complicated, and transcripts often
seemed plausibly to match more than one target. A confounding factor in
these studies is that some target locations have similarities that seem
alike at some level of perception.
For example, a radio telescope at the
top of a hill, the observation deck of a tower, and a jetty on the edge
of a bay all match a transcript description of "looking out over a long
distance." A lake, a fountain, and a creek may all result in an image
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of water for the subject. Therefore, in several cases even correct
images may not help in the conservative differential matching procedure
used.
According to the judge, the most successful procedure was a
careful element by element comparison that tested each transcript against
every target and used the transcript descriptions and drawings as argu-
ments for or against assigning the transcript to a particular target.
In
most cases, this resulted in either a clear conclusion or at least a
ranking of probable matches; these matches were subjected to the statis-
tical analyses presented in this paper.
2.
Summary
In summary, we do not yet have an understanding of the nature
of the information-bearing signal that a subject perceives during remote view-
ing. The subjects commonly report that they perceive the signal visually
as though they were looking at the object or place from a position in its
immediate neighborhood. Furthermore, the subjects' perceptual viewpoint
has mobility in that they can shift their point of view so as to describe
elements of a scene that would not be visible to an observer merely
standing at ground level and describing what he sees. (In particular,
a subject often correctly describes elements not visible to the target
demarcation team). Finally, motion is seldom reported;
in fact
moving objects often are unseen even when nearby static objects are
correctly identified.
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A comparison of the results of remote viewing (a so-called
free-response task) with results of forced-choice tasks, such as the selec-
tion of one of four choices generated by a random number generator [58], reveals
the following findings. From a statistical viewpoint, a subject is more
likely to describe, with sufficient accuracy to permit blind matching, a
remote site chosen at random than he is to select correctly one of four
random numbers. Our experience with these phenomena leads us to consider
that this difference in task performance may stem from fundamental signal -
to-noise considerations. Two principal sources of noise in the system
apparently are memory and imagination, both of which can give rise to
mental pictures of greater clarity than the target to be perceived.
In
the random number task, a subject can create a perfect mental picture of
each of the four possible outputs in his own imagination and then attempt
to obtain the correct answer by a mental matching operation. The same
is true for card guessing experiments. On the other hand, the subject
in remote viewing is apparently more likely to approach the task with a
blank mind as he attempts to perceive pictorial information from remote
locations about which he may have no stored mental data.
Finally, we observe that most of the correct information that
subjects relate to us is of a nonanalytic nature pertaining to shape,
form, color, and material rather than to function or name. In consultation
with Dr. Robert Ornstein of the Langley-Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute,
San Francisco, and with Dr. Ralph Kiernan of the Department of Neurology,
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Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, California, we have formed
the tentative hypothesis that paranormal functioning may involve special-
ization characteristic of the brain's right hemisphere. This possibility
is derived from a variety of evidence from clinical and neurosurgical
sources which indicate that the two hemispheres of the human brain are
specialized for different cognitive functions. The left hemisphere is
predominantly active in verbal and other analytical functioning and the
right hemisphere predominates in spatial and other holistic processing
[59], [60]. Further research is necessary to elucidate the relationship
between right hemispheric function and paranormal abilities.
Nonetheless,
we can say at this point that the remote viewing results of the group of sub-
jects at SRI have characteristics in common with more familiar performances that
require right hemispheric function.
The similarities include the highly
schematicized drawings of objects in a room or of remote scenes.
Verbal
identification of these drawings is often highly inaccurate and the draw-
ings themselves are frequently left-right reversed relative to the target
configuration.
Further, written material generally is not cognized.
These
characteristics have been seen in left brain-injured patients and in
callosal-sectioned patients.
As a result of the above considerations, we have learned to
urge our subjects simply to describe what they see as opposed to what
they think they are looking at.
We have learned that their unanalyzed
perceptions are almost always a better guide to the true target than their
interpretations of the perceived data.
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IV
CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING TIME
If the authors may be forgiven a personal note, we wish to express
that this section deals with observations that we have been reluctant to
publish because of their striking apparent incompatibility with existing
concepts.
The motivating factor for presenting the data at this time is
the ethical consideration that theorists endeavoring to develop models
for paranormal functioning should be apprised of all the observable data
if their efforts to arrive at a comprehensive and correct description
are to be successful.
During the course of the experimentation in remote viewing (Section
III), subjects occasionally volunteered the information that they had
been thinking about their forthcoming participation in a remote viewing
experiment and had an image come to them as to what the target location
was to be. On these occasions, the information was given only to the
experimenter remaining at SRI with the subject and was unknown to the
outbound experimenter until completion of the experiment. Two of these
contributions were among the most accurate descriptions turned in during
those experiments. Since the target location had not yet been selected
when the subject communicated his perceptions about the target, we found
the data difficult to contend with.
We offer these spontaneous occurrences not as proof of precognitive
perception, but rather as the motivation that led us to do further work
in this field. On the basis of this firsthand evidence, together with
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the copious literature describing years of precognition experiments
carried out in various other laboratories, we decided to determine
whether a subject could perform a perceptual task that required both
spatial and temporal remote viewing.
It is well-known and recently has been widely discussed that nothing
in the fundamental laws of physics forbids the apparent transmission of
information from the future to the present (discussed further in Sec-
tion V).
Furthermore, there is a general dictum that "in physical law,
everything that is not forbidden, is required [61]." With this in
mind, we set out to conduct very well-controlled experiments to determine
whether we could deliberately design and execute experiments for the
sole purpose of observing precognition under laboratory conditions.
The experimental protocol was identical to that followed in previous
remote viewing experiments with but one exception.
The exception was
that the subject was required to describe the remote location during
a 15-minute period beginning 20 minutes before the target was selected and
35 minutes before the outbound experimenter was to arrive at the target
location.
In detail, as shown in Table 9, each day at ten o'clock one of the
experimenters would leave SRI with a stack of ten sealed envelopes from
a larger pool and randomized daily, containing traveling instructions
that had been prepared, but that were unknown to the two experimenters
remaining with the subject.
The subject for this experiment was
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Table 9
Experimental Protocol:
Precognitive Remote Viewing
Time
Schedule
Experimenter/Subject Activity
10:00
Outbound experimenter leaves with 10 envelopes (containing
target locations) and random number generator;
begins half-hour drive
10:10
Experimenters remaining with subject in the laboratory
elicit from subject a description of where outbound
experimenter will be from 10:45-11:00
10:25
Subject response completed, at which time laboratory part
of experiment is over
10:30
Outbound experimenter obtains random number from a random
number generator, counts down to associated envelope, and
proceeds to target location indicated
10:45
Outbound experimenter remains at target location for
15 minutes (10:45-11:00)
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Hella Hammid (S4) who participated in the nine-experiment series repli -
cating the original Price work described earlier.
The traveling experi -
menter was to drive continuously from 10:00 until 10:30 before selecting
his destination with a random number generator.
(The motivation for
continuous motion was our observation that objects and persons in rapid
motion are not generally seen in the remote viewing mode of perception,
and we wished the traveler to be a poor target until he reached his
target site. )
At the end of 30 minutes of driving, the traveling ex-
perimenter generated a random digit from 0 to 9 with a Texas Instruments
SR-51 random number generator; while still in motion, he counted down
that number of envelopes and proceeded directly to the target location
so as to arrive there by 10:45. He remained at the target site until
11:00, at which time he returned to the laboratory, showed his chosen
target name to a security guard, and entered the experimental room.
During the same period, the protocol in the laboratory was as follows.
At 10:10, the subject was asked to begin a description of the place to
which the experimenter would go thirty-five minutes hence.
The subject
then generated a tape-recorded description and associated drawings from
10:10 to 10:25, at which time her part in the experiment was ended.
Her
description was thus entirely concluded 5 minutes before the beginning
of the target selection procedure.
Four such experiments were carried out. Each of them appeared to
be successful, an evaluation later verified in
blind judging
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without error by three judges. We will briefly summarize the four ex-
periments below.
The first target, the Palo Alto Yacht Harbor, consisted entirely of
mud flats because of an extremely low tide ( see Figure 14). Appropri-
ately, the entire transcript of the subject pertained to "some kind of
congealing tar, or maybe an area of condensed lava.
It looks like the
whole area is covered with some kind of wrinkled elephant skin that has
oozed out to fill up some kind of boundaries where (the outbound ex-
perimenter) is standing." Because of the lack of water, the dock where
the remote experimenter was standing was in fact resting directly on
the mud.
Note that the subject has learned not to rush into interpretation
as to the nature or purpose of the place. This is a result of our cau-
tioning based on the observation that such efforts tend to be purely
analytical and in our experience are almost invariably incorrect.
If a
subject can limit himself to what he sees, he is often then able to
describe a scene with sufficient accuracy that an observer can perform
the analysis for him and identify the place.
The second target visited was the fountain at one end of a large
formal garden at Stanford University Hospital (Figure 15). The subject
gave a lengthy description of a formal garden behind a wall with a
"double colonnade" and "very well manicured."
When we later took the
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TA-760582-19
FIGURE 14
SUBJECT HAMMID (S4) DESCRIBED "SOME KIND OF
CONGEALING TAR, OR MAYBE AN AREA OF
CONDENSED LAVA ... THAT HAS OOZED OUT TO FILL
UP SOME KIND OF BOUNDARIES"
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FIGURE 15
SUBJECT (S4) DESCRIBED A FORMAL GARDEN "VERY
WELL MANICURED" BEHIND A DOUBLE COLONNADE
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subject to the location, she was herself taken aback to find the double
colonnaded wall leading into the garden just as described.
The third target was a children's swing at a small park 4.6 km
from the laboratory (Figure 16). The subject repeated again and again
that the main focus of attention at the site was a "black iron triangle
that the outbound experimenter had somehow walked into or was standing
on." The triangle was "bigger than a man, " and she heard a "squeak,
squeak, about once a second," which we observe is a match to the black
metal swing that did squeak.
The final target was the Palo Alto City Hall (Figure 17). The
subject described a very, very tall structure covered with "Tiffany-like
glass."
She had it located among city streets and with little cubes
at the base.
The building is glass-covered, and the little cubes are a
good match to the small elevator exit buildings located in the plaza in
front of the building.
To obtain a numerical evaluation of the accuracy of the precognitive
viewing, the experimental results were subjected to independent judging
on a blind basis by three SRI scientists who were not otherwise associated
with the experiment. The judges were asked to match the four locations,
which they visited, against the unedited, typed manuscripts of the tape-
recorded narratives, along with the drawings generated by the remote
viewer. The transcripts were presented unlabeled and in random order and
were to be used without replacement. A correct match required that the
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FIGURE 16
SUBJECT (S4) SAW A "BLACK IRON TRIANGLE THAT
HAL HAD SOMEHOW WALKED INTO" AND HEARD A
"SQUEAK, SQUEAK, ABOUT ONCE A SECOND"
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TA 760582-211
FIGURE 17
SUBJECT (S4) DESCRIBED A VERY TALL STRUCTURE
LOCATION AMONG CITY STREETS AND COVERED WITH
"TIFFANY-LIKE GLASS"
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transcript of a given experiment be matched with the target of that
experiment. All three judges independently matched the target data to
the response data without error. Under the null hypothesis (no infor-
mation channel and a random selection of descriptions without replacement),
each judge independently obtained a result significant at p = (4!)-1 =
0.042.
For reasons we do not as yet understand, the four transcripts gen-
erated in the precognition experiment show exceptional coherence and
accuracy as evidenced by the fact that all of the judges were able to
match successfully all of the transcripts to the corresponding target
locations. A long-range experimental program devoted to the clarifica-
tion of these issues and involving a number of subjects is under way.
The above four experiments are the first four carried out under this
program.
Currently, we have no precise model of this spatial and temporal
remote viewing phenomenon. However, models of the universe involving
higher-order synchronicity or correlation have been proposed by the
physicist Pauli and the psychologist Carl Jung [62].
ACAUSALITY. If natural law* were an absolute truth, then of course
there could not possibly be any processes that deviate from it.
But since causality is a statistical truth, it holds good only on
average and thus leaves room for exceptions which must somehow be ex-
perienceable, that is to say, real. I try to regard synchronis-
tic events as acausal exceptions of this kind. They prove
to be relatively independent of space and time; they
*As usually understood.
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relativize space and time insofar as space presents in
principle no obstable to their passage and the sequence
of events in time is inverted so that it looks as if an
event which has not yet occurred were causing a perception
in the present.
We shall see in the next section that such a description, though
poetic, has some basis in modern physical theory.
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V
DISCUSSION
It is important to note at the outset that many contemporary
physicists are of the view that the phenomena that we have been
discussing are not at all inconsisyent with the framework of physics.
as currently understood. In this emerging view, the often-held belief
that observations of this type are incompatible with known laws in prin-
ciple is erroneous, such a concept being based on the naive realism prev-
alent before the development of modern quantum theory and information
theory.
One hypothesis, put forward by I. M. Kogan, of the USSR is
that information transfer under conditions of sensory shielding is mediated
by extremely low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic waves in the 300 to
1000-km region [37]-[40]. Experimental support for the hypothesis is
claimed on the basis of: slower than inverse square attenuation, com-
patible with source-percipient distances lying in the induction field
range as opposed to the radiation field range; observed low bit rates
(0.005-0.1 bits/s) compatible with the information carrying capacity
of ELF waves; apparent ineffectiveness of ordinary electromagnetic shield-
ing as an attenuator; and standard antenna calculations entailing biolog-
ically generated currents yielding results compatible with observed
signal-to-noise ratios.
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M. Persinger, Psychophysiology Laboratory, Laurentian University,
Toronto, Canada, has narrowed the ELF hypothesis to the suggestion that
the 7.8-Hz "Shumann waves" and their harmonics propagating along the
earth-ionosphere waveguide duct may be responsible. Such an hypothesis
is compatible with driving by brain-wave currents and leads to certain other
hypotheses such as asymmetry between east-west and west-east propagation,
preferred experimental times (midnight-4 A.M.), and expected negative
correlation between success and the U index (a measure of geomagnetic
disturbance throughout the world). Persinger claims initial support
for these factors on the basis of a literature search [63], [64].
On the negative side with regard to a straightforward ELF interpre-
tation as a blanket hypothesis are: (a) apparent real-time descriptions
of remote activities in sufficient detail to require a channel capacity
in all probability greater than that allowed by a conventional modulation
of an ELF signal; (b) lack of a proposed mechanism for coding and decoding
the information onto the proposed ELF carrier; and (c) apparent precog-
nition data. The hypothesis must nonetheless remain open at this stage
of research, since it is conceivable that counterindication (a) may
eventually be circumvented on the basis that the apparent high bit rate
results from a mixture of low bit rate input and high bit rate "filling
in the blanks" from imagination; counterindication (b) is common to a
number of normal perceptual tasks and may therefore simply reflect a
lack of sophistication on our part with regard to perceptual functioning
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[65]; and counterindication (c) may be accommodated by an ELF hypothesis
if advanced waves as well as retarded waves are admitted [66], [67].
Ex-
perimentation to determine whether the ELF hypothesis is viable can be
carried out by the use of ELF sources as targets, by the study of para-
metric dependence on propagational directions and diurnal timing, and
by the exploration of interference effects caused by creation of a high-
intensity ELF environment during experimentation, all of which are under
consideration in our laboratory and elsewhere.
Some physicists believe that the reconciliation of observed para-
normal functioning with modern theory may take place at a more funda-
mental level -- namely, at the level of the foundations of quantum theory.
There is a continuing dialog, for example, on the proper interpretation
of the effect of an observer (consciousness) on experimental measurement
[68], and there is considerable current interest in the implications for
our notions of ordering in time and space brought on by the observation
[69], [70] of nonlocal correlation or "quantum interconnectedness" (to
use Bohm's term [71 ]) of distant parts of quantum systems of macroscopic
dimensions.
The latter, Bell's Theorem [72], emphasizes that "no theory
of reality compatible with quantum theory can require spatially separated
events to be independent," [73] but must permit interconnectedness of
distant events in a manner that is
contrary to ordinary experience
[74]-[75].
This prediction has been experimentally tested and confirmed
in the recent experiments of, for example, Freedman and Clauser [69], [70].
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E. H. Walker and 0. Costa de Beauregard, independently proposing
theories of paranormal functioning based on quantum concepts, argue that
observer effects open the door to the possibility of nontrivial coupling
between consciousness and the environment and that the nonlocality prin-
ciple permits such coupling to transcend spatial and temporal barriers
[76], [77].
Apparent "time reversibility, " -- that is, effects (e.g.,
observations) apparently preceding causes (e.g., events) -- though
conceptually difficult at first glance, may be the easiest of apparent
paranormal phenomena to assimilate within the current theoretical struc-
ture of our world view. In addition to the familiar retarded potential
solutions f(t - r/c), it is well-known that the equations of, for example,
the electromagnetic field admit of advanced potential solutions f(t +
r/c) -- solutions that would appear to imply a reversal of cause and effect.
Such solutions are conventionally discarded as not corresponding to any
observable physical event. One is cautioned, however, by statements
such as that of Stratton in his basic text on electromagnetic theory [78].
The reader has doubtless noted that the choice of the func-
tion f(t - r/c) is highly arbitrary, since the field equation
admits also a solution f(t + r/c). This function leads ob-
:
viously to an advanced time, implying that the field can be
observed before it has been generated by the source. The
familiar chain of cause and effect is thus reversed and this
alternative solution might be discarded as logically incon-
ceivable. However, the application of "logical" causality
principles offers very insecure footing in matters such as
these and we shall do better to restrict the theory to
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retarded action solely on the grounds that this solution
alone conforms to the present physical data.
Such caution is justified by the example in the early 1920s of Dirac's
development of the mathematical description of the relativistic electron
that also yielded a pair of solutions, one of which was discarded as in-
applicable until the discovery of the positron in 1932.
In an analysis by 0. Costa de Beauregard, an argument is put forward
that advanced potentials constitute a convergence toward "finality" in
a manner symmetrical to the divergence of retarded potentials as a result
of causality [77].
Such phenomena are generally unobservable, however,
on the gross macroscopic scale for statistical reasons. This is codified
in the thermodynamic concept that for an isolated system entropy (disorder)
on the average increases.
It is just this requirement of isolation, how-
ever, that has been weakened by the observer problem in quantum theory,
and 0. Costa de Beauregard argues that the finality principle is maximally
operative in just those situations where the intrusion of consciousness
as an ordering phenomenon results in a significant local reversal of
entropy increase. At this point, further discussion of the subtleties
of such considerations, though apropos, would take us far afield, so we
simply note that such advanced waves, if detected, could in certain cases
constitute a carrier of information precognitive to the event.
The above arguments are not intended to indicate that the precise
nature of the information channel coupling remote events and human
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perception is understood. Rather, we intend only to show that modern
theory is not without resources that can be brought to bear on the prob-
lems at hand, and we expect that these problems will, with further work,
continue to yield to analysis and specification.
Furthermore, independent of the mechanisms that may be involved in
remote sensing, observation of the phenomenon implies the existence of
an information channel in the information-theoretic sense. Since such
channels are amenable to analysis on the basis of communication theory
techniques, as indicated earlier, channel characteristics such as bit rate
can be determined independent of a well-defined physical channel model
in the sense that thermodynamic concepts can be applied to the analysis
of systems independent of underlying mechanisms. Furthermore, as we have
seen from the work of Ryzl discussed in Section II, it is possible to use
such a channel for error-free transmission of information if redundancy
coding is used. (See also Appendix A) . Therefore, experimentation in-
volving the collection of data under specified conditions permits headway
to be made despite the formidable work that needs to be done to clarify
the underlying bases of the phenomena.
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VI
CONCLUSIONS
For the past three years, the Electronics and Bioengineering Lab-
oratory of SRI has had a program to investigate those facets of human
perception that appear to fall outside the range of well-understood
perceptual or processing capabilities. The primary achievement of this
program has been the elicitation of high-quality "remote viewing;" the
ability of both experienced subjects and inexperienced volunteers to view, by
means of innate mental processes, remote geographical or technical targets
such as roads, buildings, and laboratory apparatus.
Our accumulated data
from over 50 experiments with more than a half dozen subjects indicates
the following: the phenomenon is not a sensitive function of distance
over a several-km range; Faraday cage shielding does not appear to de-
grade the quality or accuracy of perception; most of the correct infor-
mation that subjects relate is of a nonanalytic nature pertaining to
shape, form, color, and material rather than to function or name (this
aspect suggests a hypothesis that information transmission under con-
ditions of sensory shielding may be mediated primarily by the brain's
right hemisphere) ; and the principal difference between experienced subjects
and inexperienced volunteers is not that the latter never exhibit the
faculty, but rather that their results are simply less reliable (this
observation suggests the hypothesis that remote viewing may be a latent
and widely distributed perceptual ability) .
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Although the precise nature of the information channel coupling
remote events and human perception is not yet understood, certain concepts
in information theory, quantum theory, and neurophysiological research
appear to bear directly on the issue. As a result, the working assump-
tion among researchers in the field is that the phenomenon of interest
is consistent with modern scientific thought and can therefore be expected
to yield to the scientific method.
Further, it is recognized that com-
munication theory provides powerful techniques, such as the use of re-
dundancy coding to improve signal-to-noise ratio, that can be used to
pursue special-purpose application of the remote sensing channel inde-
pendent of an understanding of the underlying mechanisms. We therefore
consider that it is important to continue data collection and to encourage
others to do likewise; investigations such as those reported here need
replication and extension under as wide a variety of rigorously controlled
conditions as possible.
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Appendix A
SIGNAL ENHANCEMENT IN A PARANORMAL COMMUNICATION
CHANNEL BY APPLICATION OF REDUNDANCY CODING
Independent of the mechanisms that may be involved in remote sensing,
observation of the phenomenon implies the existence of an information
channel in the information-theoretic sense. As we have seen from the
work of Ryzl discussed in Section II," itis even possible to use such a
(noisy) channel for error-free transmission of information if sufficient
redundancy coding is used [30], [31]. Following is a general procedure
that we have used successfully for signal enhancement.
We shall assume that the "message" consists of a stream of binary
digits (0,1) of equal probability (e.g., binary sort of green/white
cards as in Ryzl's case; English text encoded as in Table Al and sent
1
long distance by strobe light on/off, and so on) . To combat channel noise,
each binary digit to be sent through the channel requires the addition of
redundancy bits (coding).
Efficient coding requires a compromise between
the desire to maximize reliability and to minimize redundancy.
One
efficient coding scheme for such a channel is obtained by application
of a sequential sampling procedure of the type used in production line
quality control [80]. The adaptation of such a procedure to paranormal
*
See also footnote on successful work by Carpenter.
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Table Al
5-Bit Code for Alphanumeric Characters
E
00000
Y
01000
T
11111
G, J
10111
N
00001
W
01001
R
11110
V
10110
I
00010
B
01010
0
11101
ø
10101
A
00011
1
01011
S,X, Z
11100
2
10100
D
00100
3
01100
H
11011
4
10011
L
00101
5
01101
C,K,Q
11010
6
10010
F
00110
7
01110
P
11001
8
10001
U
00111
9
01111
M
11000
10000
Note:
Alphabet characters listed
in order of decreasing
frequency in English text.
See, for example, A. Sinkov,
Elementary Cryptanalysis --
A Mathematical Approach
[79]. (The low frequency
letters, X, Z,K,Q, and J
have been grouped with
similar characters to
provide space for numerics
in a 5-bit code.) In
consideration of the uneven
distribution of letter
frequencies in English
text, this code is chosen
such that 0 and 1 have
equal probability.
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communication channels, which we now discuss, was considered first by
Taetzsch [81]. The sequential method gives a rule of procedure for
making one of three possible decisions following the receipt of each bit:
accept 1 as the bit being transmitted; reject 1 as the bit being trans-
mitted (i.e., accept 0); or continue transmission of the bit under con-
sideration.
The sequential sampling procedure differs from fixed-length
coding in that the number of bits required to reach a final decision on
a message bit is not fixed before transmission, but depends on the results
accumulated with each transmission. The principal advantage of the se-
quential sampling procedure as compared with the other methods is that,
on the average, fewer bits per final decision are required for an equiva-
lent degree of reliability.
Use of the sequential sampling procedure requires the specification
of parameters that are determined on the basis of the following considera-
tions. Assume that a message bit (0 or 1) is being transmitted.
In the
absence of a priori knowledge, we may assume equal probability (p = 0.5)
for the two possibilities (0,1). Therefore, from the standpoint of the
receiver, the probability of correctly identifying the bit being trans-
mitted is p = 0.5 because of chance alone. An operative remote sensing
channel could then be expected to alter the probability of correct
identification to a value p = 0.5 + \, where the parameter \ satisfies
o<|v| < 0.5. (The quantity may be positive or negative depending
on whether the paranormal channel results in so-called psi-hitting or
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psi-missing.) Good psi functioning on a repetitive task has been
observed to result in y = 0.12, as reported by Ryz1 [31]. Therefore,
to indicate the design procedure, let us assume a baseline psi parameter
Vb = 0. 1 and design a communication system on this basis.
The question to be addressed is whether, after repeated transmission,
a given message bit is labeled a "1" at a low rate Po commensurate with
the hypothesis Ho that the bit in question is a "0," or at a higher rate
P1 commensurate with the hypothesis Hy that the bit in question is in-
deed a "1." The decision-making process requires the specification of
four parameters:
Po: The probability of labeling incorrectly a "O" message bit
as a "1." The probability of labeling correctly a "0" as
a "0" is p = 0.5 + Vb=0.6. Therefore, the probability
of labeling incorrectly a "0" as a "1" is 1 - p = 0.4 = Po .
P1:
The probability of labeling correctly a "1" message bit
as a "1," is given by P1 = 0.5 + Vb = 0.6.
The probability of rejecting a correct identification
for a "0" (Type I error) . We shall take @ = 0.01.
:
: The probability of accepting an incorrect identification
for a "1" (Type II error) . We shall take B = 0.01.
With the parameters thus specified, the sequential sampling pro-
cedure provides for construction of a decision graph as shown in Fig-
ure A-1. The equations for the upper and lower limit lines are
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CUMULATIVE NUMBER OF MATCHES AGAINST
"1" TARGET MESSAGE SEQUENCE
50
40
DECISION 1
Accept "1" as
30
the Bit Being
Transmitted
DECISION 3
Continue
20
Transmission
10
DECISION 2
Accept "O" as
the Bit Being
Transmitted
..
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
NUMBER OF TRIALS
TA-760525-8
FIGURE A-1
ENHANCEMENT OF SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO BY
SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING PROCEDURE (po = 0.4,
p = 0.6, « = 0.01, 0 = 0.01)
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1 = 41 + SN,
E,= - do + SN,
where
1og
1-B
d1
1og_
Po
1
1-Po
1-p.
1
1-o
log
=
P,
1
1-p
0
log-
Po 1-P1
1
1-Po
log
1-P1
.
S
=
P1
1-Po
log-
PO
1-P1
S is the slope
N is the number of trials
d1 and do are the y axis intercepts.
A cumulative record of receiver-generated responses to the target bit is
compiled until either the upper or lower limit line is reached, at which
point a decision is made to accept 0 or 1 as the bit being transmitted.
Channel reliability (probability of correctly determining message
being transmitted) as a function of operative psi parameter \ is plotted
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in Figure A-2. As observed, the sequential sampling procedure can result
in 90 percent or greater reliability with psi parameters on the order of
a few percent.
Implementation of the sequential sampling procedure requires the
transmission of a message coded in binary digits. Therefore, the target
space must consist of dichotomous elements such as the white and green
cards used in the experiments by Ryzl.
In operation, a sequence corresponding to the target bit (0 or 1) is
sent and the cumulative entries are made (Figure A-1) until a decision
is reached to accept either a 1 or 0 as the bit being transmitted.
At
a prearranged time, the next sequence is begun and continues as above
until the entire message has been received. A useful alternative, which
relieves the percipient of the burden of being aware of his self-
contradiction from trial to trial, consists of cycling through the entire
message repetitively and entering each response on its associated graph
until a decision has been reached on all message bits. The authors have
used this technique successfully in a pilot study, but a discussion of
this would take us beyond the intended scope of this paper.
From the results obtained in such experiments, the channel bit rate
can be ascertained for the system configuration under consideration.
Furthermore, bit rates for other degrees of reliability (i.e., for other
Po' PI, a, and B) can be estimated by construction of other decision
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1.0
RELIABILITY (probability of correctly
determining message being transmitted)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
+0.4 +0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4
v (psi parameter)
TA-760525-9
FIGURE A-2
RELIABILITY CURVE FOR SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING
PROCEDURE (po = 0.4, p = 0.6, @ = 0.01, 0 = 0.01)
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curves over the same data base and thus provide a measure of the bit rate
per degree of reliability.
In summary, the procedures described here can provide a specification
of the characteristics of a remote sensing channel under well-defined
conditions.
These procedures also provide for a determination of the
feasibility of such a channel for particular applications.
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Appendix B
REMOTE VIEWING TRANSCRIPT
Following is the unedited transcript of the first experiment with
an SRI volunteer (S6), a mathematician in the computer science laboratory,
with no previous experience in remote viewing.
The target, determined
by random procedure, was White's Plaza, a plaza with fountain at Stanford
University (shown in Figure 8). The capital letters correspond to the
experimenter's statements and questions. As is our standard protocol,
the experimenter with the subject is kept ignorant of the specific target
visited as well as of the contents of the target pool.
.
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TODAY IS MONDAY, OCTOBER 7TH.
IT IS 11:00 AND THIS IS A REMOTE VIEWING
EXPERIMENT WITH RUSS TARG, PHYLLIS COLE, AND HAL PUTHOFF. IN THIS EX-
PERIMENT HAL WILL DRIVE TO A REMOTE SITE CHOSEN BY A RANDOM PROCESS.
PHYLLIS COLE WILL BE THE REMOTE VIEWER, AND RUSS TARG IS THE MONITOR.
WE EXPECT THIS EXPERIMENT TO START AT TWENTY MINUTES AFTER ELEVEN AND
RUN FOR FIFTEEN MINUTES.
IS IS JUST ABOUT TWENTY MINUTES AFTER ELEVEN AND HAL SHOULD BE AT HIS
TARGET LOCATION BY NOW.
WHY DON'T YOU TELL ME WHAT KIND OF PICTURES YOU SEE AND WHAT YOU THINK HE
MIGHT BE DOING OR EXPERIENCING.
The first thing that came to mind was some sort of a large, square kind
of a shape. Like Hal was in front of it.
It was a ... not a building or
something, it was a square.
I don't know if it was a window, but some-
thing like that so that the bottom line of it was not at the ground.
About where his waist was, at least.
That's what it seemed to me.
It seems outdoors somehow.
Tree.
DOES HAL SEEM TO BE LOOKING AT THAT SQUARE?
I don't know. The first impression was that he wasn't, but I have a
sense that whatever it was was something one might look at. I don't know
if it would be a sign, but something that one might look at.
CAN YOU TELL IF IT IS ON THE GROUND OR VERTICAL?
It seemed vertical.
I don't have a sense that it was part of anything particular.
It might
be on a building or part of a building, but I don't know.
There was a
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tree outside, but I also got the impression of cement.
I don't have the
impression of very many people or traffic either.
I have the sense that
he is sort of walking back and forth.
I don't have any more explicit
picture than that.
CAN YOU MOVE INTO WHERE HE IS STANDING AND TRY TO SEE WHAT HE IS LOOKING
AT?
I picked up he was touching something -- something rough.
Maybe warm and
rough.
Something possibly like cement.
IT IS TWENTY-FOUR MINUTES AFTER ELEVEN.
CAN YOU CHANGE YOUR POINT OF VIEW AND MOVE ABOVE THE SCENE SO YOU CAN
GET A BIGGER PICTURE OF WHAT'S THERE?
I still see some trees and some sort of pavement or something like that.
Might be a courtyard.
The thing that came to mind was it might be one
of the plazas at Stanford campus or something like that, cement.
Some kinds of landscaping.
I said Stanford campus when I started to see some things in White Plaza,
but I think that is misleading.
I have the sense that he's not moving around too much.
That it's in a
small area.
I guess I'll go ahead and say it, but I'm afraid I'm just putting on my
impressions from Stanford campus.
I had the impression of a fountain.
There are two in the plaza, and it seemed that Hal was possibly near the,
what they call Mem Claw.
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WHAT IS THAT?
It's a fountain that looks rather like a claw.
It's a black sculpture.
And it has benches around it made of cement.
ARE THERE ANY BUILDINGS AT THE PLACE YOU ARE LOOKING AT?
ARE THERE ANY
BUILDINGS?
YOU DESCRIBED A KIND OF A COURTYARD.
USUALLY AT SOME PLACES
THERE SHOULD BE A BUILDING, LARGE OR SMALL THAT THE COURTYARD IS ABOUT.
LOOK AT THE END OR THE SIDES OF THE COURTYARD.
IS THERE ANYTHING TO BE
SEEN?
I have a sense that there are buildings.
It's not solid buildings.
I mean
there are some around the periphery and I have a sense that none of them
are very tall. Maybe mostly one story, maybe an occasional two story one.
DO YOU HAVE ANY BETTER IDEA OF WHAT YOUR SQUARE WAS THAT YOU SAW AT THE
OUT SET?
No.
I could hazard different kinds of guesses.
DOES IT SEEM PART OF THIS SCENE?
It
.
I think it could be.
It could almost be a bulletin board or some-
thing with notices on it maybe.
Or something that people are expected to look at.
Maybe a window with
things in it that people were expected to look at.
WHAT KIND OF TREES DO YOU SEE IN THIS PLACE?
I don't know what kind they are. The impression was that they were shade
trees and not terribly big. Maybe 12 feet of trunk and then a certain
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amount of branches above that.
So that the branches have maybe a 12 foot
diameter, or something.
Not real big trees.
NEW TREES RATHER THAN OLD TREES?
Yeah, maybe 5 or 10 years old, but not real old ones.
IS THERE ANYTHING INTERESTING ABOUT THE PAVEMENT?
No.
It seems to be not terribly new or terribly old.
Not very interesting.
There seems to be some bits of landscaping around.
Little patches of grass
around the edges and peripheries.
Maybe some flowers.
But, not lush.
YOU SAW SOME BENCHES. DO YOU WANT TO TELL ME ABOUT THEM?
Well, that's my unsure feeling about this fountain.
There was some kind
of benches of cement.
Curved benches, it felt like.
They were of rough cement.
WHAT DO YOU THINK HAL IS DOING WHILE HE IS THERE?
I have a sense that he is looking at things trying to project them.
Looking at different things and sort of walking back and forth not cover-
ing a whole lot of territory.
Sometimes standing still while he looks around.
I just had the impression of him talking, and I almost sense that it was
being recorded or something.
I don't know if he has a tape recorder,
but if it's not that, then he is saying something because it needed to
be remembered.
IT'S 11: 33. HE'S JUST PROBABLY GETTING READY TO COME
BACK.
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REFERENCES
1.
J. R. Smythies, ed., Science and ESP (Routledge and Kegan Paul,
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2.
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3.
Alan Gauld, The founders of psychical research (Schocken Books,
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See also Wm. Crookes, Researches in the
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C. Scott and P. Haskell, "'Normal' explanation of the Soal-Goldney
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17.
C. E. M. Hansel, ESP -- A scientific evaluation (Charles Scribners, New
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J. B. Rhine and J. G. Pratt, "A review of the Pearce-Pratt distance
series of ESP tests," J. of Parapsychology 18, pp. 165-177 (1954) .
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J. G. Pratt and J. L. Woodruff, "Size of stimulus symbols in extra-
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