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Final Report
Phenomenological Research
and Analysis
Authors:
Edwin C. May, Ph.D., Wanda L. W. Luke, and Christine L. James
29 September 1994
SAIC
Science Applications International Corporation
An Employee-Owned Company
Presented to:
U. S. Government
Contract MDA908-93-C-0004
(Client Private)
Submitted by:
Science Applications International Corporation
Cognitive Sciences Laboratory
1010 El Camino Real, Suite 330, P.O. Box 1412, Menlo Park, CA 94025 · (415) 325-8292
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Phenomenological Research and Analysis: Final Report
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
LIST OF FIGURES
ii
LIST OF TABLES
I.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1
II.
TECHNICAL OVERVIEW
2
1.
Biophysical Measurements
2
2.
Data Patterns/Parameter Correlations
11
3.
Theoretical Issues
15
4.
Applied Research
18
5.
Research Methodology and Support
25
III
GLOSSARY
27
REFERENCES
28
APPENDIX A: Autonomic Detection of Remote Observation
30
APPENDIX B: Target and Sender Dependencies in AC Experiments
31
APPENDIX C: Managing the Target Pool Bandwidth
32
APPENDIX D: Shannon Entropy as an Intrinsic Target Property
33
APPENDIX E: Ganzfeld Experiment
34
SG1A
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LIST OF FIGURES
1.
Stimulus Timing
7
2.
Typical ERD from Direct Stimuli
8
3.
Cluster Diagram
16
4.
Cross-Section of the Detector (Not to Scale)
21
5.
Test Exposure: 2,250 Volts for 28 Hours
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=
LIST OF TABLES
1. AC Results
9
2.
Wilcoxon Statistics for ERDs
9
3.
0-7 Point Assessment Scale
10
4.
Partial Element List for a Test-bed Experiment
24
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I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Our research has advanced our understanding of applying anomalous mental phenomena to practical
problems and lead us toward a comprehensive theoretical model for the phenomena." During the con-
tract period ending 29 July 1994, we have:
· Successfully verified a claim from the Former Soviet Union (FSU) and from the U.S. that it is possible
to influence the physiology of an isolated individual exclusively by anomalous mental phenomena.
Furthermore, we were able to demonstrate in our analysis of previous work that the mechanism of
such influence is most likely causal. That is, the mental intention of a distant agent appears to cause
physiological changes in an isolated person.
SG1A
· Identified an intrinsic property of an AC target (i.e., the gradient of Shannon's entropy). This result
is a break-through in our understanding of the mechanisms of AC. We have shown that detecting AC
is not unlike how our other sensory systems detect their particular inputs (e.g., how the eye detects
light). In the future, all practical applications and laboratory experiments can be significantly im-
proved by choosing targets that possess the largest possible value of this particular parameter.
· Provided a proven method for the detailed evaluation of individual AC-performance in practical ap-
plications, in the laboratory and as a certification procedure.
SG1A
= SG1A
· Set a lower limit for the response of the central nervous system (i.e., brain) to anomalous cognition
(AC) signals. If we could be successful at identifying a brain response, then practical applications and
laboratory research would be sharply improved, even though the estimate for the lower limit is only
0.2 percent change in brain activity.
SG1A
· Developed and calibrated instrumentation to replicate a physics-type experiment from the FSU that
suggests a new form of energy can be detected. Researchers there speculate that this form of energy
might be responsible as the carrier of anomalous mental phenomena signals. Preliminary results are
encouraging, and the final results will be available before 30 September 1994.
SG1A
. Clearly demonstrated that using AC as a technique to send messages is not a productive pursuit.
All of the experiments that we conducted for this year produced highly significant evidence for anoma-
lous mental phenomena. We interpret this success, which is 20 times chance, to our expanding under-
standing of the protocols, mechanisms, and psychology that are responsible for a high level of function-
ing. The magnitude of our AC effects exceed the value that is considered robust by the psychology
research community.
* This report constitutes our final deliverable under contact number MDA908-93-C-0004.
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II. TECHNICAL OVERVIEW
In this section we provide a technical overview of the activity which was conducted under contract num-
ber MDA -004. The technical details of the experiments can be found in the Appendices.
1. Biophysical Measurements
These tasks were to search for possible physiological correlates to anomalous cognition (AC) function-
ing. If such correlations could be found, they would directly lead to improved application and laborato-
ry results.
We conducted two experiments with regard to biophysical measurements that were replications of pre-
vious work. The first of these was an attempt to replicate a finding in the U.S and in the Former Soviet
Union that claimed that some aspect of human physiology can be influenced by an isolated and remote
observer (Schlitz and LaBerge, 1994) .* The second was an improved experiment to determine if and
how the central nervous system (i.e., the brain) responds to "signals" that are sensorially isolated from a
receiver.+
1.1 Remote Observation Experiment
A series of experiments has been conducted in the U.S. in which it is claimed that a receiver's electrical
properties of the skin (i.e., electrodermal response) can be influenced by a remote observer. This is a
laboratory example of a frequently reported anecdote: after entering a crowded room, you "sense" that
you are being stared at and discover that you are correct.
A complete write-up of our experiment, which includes the history, methodology, and results can be
found in Appendix A; however, we summarize the findings here.
Two experiments were conducted to measure the extent to which people are able to unconsciously de-
tect another person staring at them from a distance. A close-circuit television set-up was employed in
which a video camera was focused on the experimental volunteer (Observee) while a person in another
room (Observer) concentrated on the image of the distant person as displayed on a color monitor; this
procedure was used to preclude any conventional sensory contact between the two people. During the
experimental session, the Observee's galvanic skin responses were monitored. An automated and com-
puterized system was programmed to record and average the physiological responses of the Observee
during 32 30-second monitoring periods. A random sequence was used to schedule 16 periods of re-
mote observation and 16 control periods when no observation efforts were attempted. A within-sub-
jects evaluation was made for each experimental session with a comparison between the mean amount
of autonomic nervous system activity during the experimental and control conditions. Twenty four ses-
* References may be found at the end of the document.
t Please see Section III on page 27 for a definition of terms.
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sions were conducted in each of two experiments. As predicted, both experiments yielded significantly
more autonomic activity during the remote observation periods as compared to control periods (Ex-
periment 1: 1=1.878, df = 23, p ≤ 0.036; Experiment 2: t=2.652, df = 23, p ≤ 0.014). As pre-planned,
the two experiments were combined to increase the statistical power, yielding a significant t-score of
2.652 (df = 47, p ≤ 0.005).
There are two competing anomalous mental phenomena descriptions for these results. Given that this
experiment represents successful replication of a number of such experiments, we do not include the
possibility that these results are a rare or chance statistical deviation. The question we pose for future
experiments is: Is this effect causal (i.e., the Observer forces the skin parameters to be different than
they would otherwise be) or informational (i.e., the Observee is AC-sensitive to know when he/she is
been stared at and responds accordingly)? The methodology we used in our experiment was primarily
designed to replicate both US and FSU similar experiments rather than to answer this particular ques-
tion. Although most of our analyses of so-called anomalous perturbation (AP) experiments demon-
strate informational mechanisms, we have recently analyzed a bio-AP experiment that statistically fa-
vored the causal explanation. Determining the mechanism is very important because it will dictate the
potential applications for this type of phenomenon.
1.2 Central Nervous System Response to AC Signals
The objective of this effort was to test the hypothesis that physiological responses to AC stimuli re-
semble those which occur in response to identical direct visual stimuli.
1.2.1 Background
As part of the research tasking for FY 1993, we had been asked to conduct an investigation of the rela-
tionship between the central and/or the peripheral nervous system and AC. In this section, we review
the pertinent literature and provide a justification for the effort.
1.2.1.1 Prior Research
We only consider AC experiments that use complex material for targets. While there have been sub-
stantial numbers of experiments in which symbols have been used as targets (Honorton, 1975; Honor-
ton and Ferarri, 1989), we will not include that data as part of the behavioral evidence for AC.
In 1976, Puthoff and Targ (1976) published the results of a series of experiments in what was then called
remote viewing. In 51 trials, their results led to an overall effect size of 0.9601-0.140 which corresponds
to a 6.8o effect. In behavioral terms, Cohen (1988) would classify this effect as large.
As part of our FY 1991-1992 effort, we were asked to use magnetoencephalography (MEG) to investi-
gate how, or if, the central nervous system (CNS) responds to "visual" stimuli that are physically and
sensorially isolated from a receiver. The reasoning behind this request was that during an earlier inves-
tigation in FY 1988, we observed, what was suspected to be, instantaneous phase shifts of the dominant
alpha rhythm concomitant with such stimuli. That study itself was originally thought of as a conceptual
replication of even earlier work in which alpha power changes were putatively induced with remote visu-
al stimuli (Rebert and Turner, 1974; May, Targ, and Puthoff, 1977).
As we stated in our final report (May, Luke, and Lantz, 1992), the FY 1992 study did not replicate the
FY 1988 finding (May, Luke, Trask, and Frivold, 1990b). Because of our technical and methodological
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improvements, we concluded that the 1988 results were likely to be spurious. We can, however, specify a
number of possible arguments why the 1988 study failed to replicate:
· AC does not exist.
. AC exists, but the conditions were not conducive for quality AC functioning.
. AC exists, but the target system (i.e., 100 millisecond sinusoidal gratings in the lower left visual field
of the receiver) did not constitute an appropriate stimulus.
We address these issues in order.
The verification of the existence of AC is an epistemological problem. The definition of AC is a nega-
tive one; we are able to describe what AC is not, but there is no statement about what AC is other than
methodological. Colloquially, we might say AC is a form of information transfer when, according to the
currently understood laws of physics, the retrieval of information is impossible. Thus, we say AC exists
if a statistically valid anomaly is observed under the proper methodological conditions.
Since replication is better than distribution theory, it is important to define what replication means in a
2-o domain. Professor Utts, from the statistics department at the University of California at Davis, has
provided a good operational definition, which is based on standard power analysis (Utts, 1988). Since
1975, there have been four major articles published in the reviewed literature that analyze substantial
numbers of experiments that portend AC. All but one use the modern methods of meta-analysis to
determine the final conclusion for each collection of studies. It is important to realize that in all these
analyses, all the published data are included. In addition, the techniques of meta-analysis allow for re-
sponsible estimates of the number of studies that "failed" and were not published.
(1) In "Error Some Place!" Honorton critically reviewed card-guessing experiments, which were con-
ducted between 1934 and 1939 (Honorton, 1975). The AC-targets in these studies were five geo-
metric symbols; circle, square, wavy lines, star, and cross. In almost 800,000 individual card trials
that were obtained after the targets had been specified (i.e., real-time AC), the weighted effect size
was @ = 0.013-0.001, which corresponds to an overall combined effect of 12.70. This analysis,
however, was completed before the techniques of meta-analysis were known. Improvements,
which include the analysis of experiment quality, can be found in the next example.
(2) Using the tools of modern meta-analysis, Honorton reviewed the precognition (i.e., a target is ran-
domly generated after the trial had been obtained) card-guessing database (Honorton and Ferarri,
1989). This analysis included 309 separate studies reported by 62 investigators. Nearly two million
individual trials were contributed by more the 50,000 subjects. The combined effect size was & =
0.020-10.002, which corresponds to an overall combined effect of 11.4. Two important results
emerge from Honorton's analysis. First, it is often stated by critics that the best results are from
studies with the least methodological controls. To check this hypothesis, Honorton devised an
eight-point quality measure (e.g., automated recording of data, proper randomization techniques)
and scored each study with regard to these measures. There was no significant correlation between
study quality and study score. Second, if researchers improved their experiments over time, one
would expect a significant correlation of study quality with date of publication. Honorton found r =
0.246, df = 307, p < 2×10-7. In brief, Honorton concludes that a statistical anomaly exists in this
data that cannot be explained by poor study quality or a large variety of other hypothesis.
(3) In examining AC with complex visual targets, Bem and Honorton analyzed 11 separate studies in-
volving a total of 329 trials (Bem and Honorton, 1994). They report a combined effect size of € =
0.159-0.055, which corresponds to 2.890. We wish to call attention to the fact that this effect size is
approximately eight times larger than the effect size reported for studies where the targets are sym-
bols. Since effect sizes are relative measures above mean chance expectation, this result is one, of
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many, which suggest that the statistically simpler target system of five symbols does not produce as
much AC as do complex targets.
(4) Radin and Nelson (1989) provide, in Foundations of Physics, a meta-analysis of a different form of
AC. The targets were randomly changing binary bits whose random nature was usually derived ei-
ther from electronic noise or radioactive decay. Similar to Honorton's work, they assigned a
16-point quality rating to over 800 individual studies conducted by 68 investigators from 1959 to
1987. They compute an overall weighted effect size of approximately € = (3.0+0.5) ×10-4, which
corresponds to 60. They also find no correlation between study quality and study score.
An independent analysis of these statistics can be found in Statistical Sciences, which is a journal that
invites and publishes contributions and substantial critical comments by recognized leaders in the field
of statistics (Utts, 1991). Although Utts focuses her attention on the meta-analyis of the Ganzfeld, her
analysis, discussion, and defense of the commentary are noteworthy.
These effects are small. To illustrate a point about replication, we will compute, using standard power
analysis, the probability that a new study will demonstrate significant (i.e., p < 0.05) evidence for AC. If
we assume that the actual AC-effect size is given by @ = 0.159 then the probability of observing a signifi-
cant outcome in 50 trials is only 30%. Although this is six times chance expectation of 5%, there remains
a 70% likelihood that this study would "fail" to replicate. It is exactly this type of realization that is
responsible for a shift in the determination of replication from p-values to effect sizes.
It is clear from these analyses that there is incontrovertible evidence that a statistical, albeit small, in-
formation-transfer anomaly exists that cannot be accounted for by methodological issues or fraud.
Thus, we were strongly motivated to continue our investigations of the CNS in order to identify how the
brain responds to AC stimuli.
1.2.1.2 Conditions for Quality AC Functioning
One of the problems associated with our earlier CNS investigations is that we did not obtain concom-
itant behavioral measures of AC. Many experiments and discussions about what constitutes an AC-
conducive state can be found in the parapsychology literature. It is beyond the scope of this report to
provide an analysis of this research, and there remains substantial disagreement among the researchers
on this point. In Ganzfeld studies, for example, it is assumed that reducing somatisensory noise en-
hances AC, yet in our experiments we observe equivalent or larger effect sizes without the reduction.
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Lacking reliable research results on this point, it has been our view that the "ideal" environment for AC
would not be much different than what might be needed to perform any high-level mental task. For
example, the best environment for a person to read and understand a novel might also be sufficient for
producing AC. In most all of our AC experiments, receivers are seated in a quiet and comfortable room
with few external distractions. The atmosphere is cordial, yet business like. On the one hand, we would
like to have the receivers be attentive (i.e., we suspect that too relaxed or asleep is not helpful); yet on
the other hand, we do not want them to be distracted. Under these conditions, we routinely observe
large effect sizes for AC.
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In our MEG investigations, receivers were required to recline, face down, on a wooden table in a dark,
technically complex room for approximately 30 minuets. A large device (i.e., the MEG and its
associated liquid helium flask) was comfortably touching the back of their heads. In addition, they were
instructed to move as little as possible and relax as much as possible. Some receivers complained that
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various body parts fell "asleep," and that the experience was not particularly pleasant; other receivers
did not mind the setup. No receivers, however, found the experience enjoyable.
We suspect that since this environment was sufficiently different from our usual one, it may have failed
to provide a conducive atmosphere to elicit AC functioning.
1.2.1.3 Target Systems
The meta-analysis of the historical databases clearly show a preference for certain target systems. For
example, as we have shown above, complex visual targets provided better AC than do simple geometric
symbols. In addition, Bem and Honorton have demonstrated a statistical preference for even more
complex targets than static photographs. They observed a significant difference in the Ganzfeld favor-
ing video segments from popular movies over single photographs. There is no evidence in the literature
to suggest that a 100-millisecond long sinusoidal grating constitutes a viable AC target. In fact, our en-
tropy results suggest that it would not be a good target, because it's total change of Shannon entropy is
small (May, Spottiswoode, and James, 1994).
1.2.1.4 Conclusions
Except for the alpha blocking experiment done at SRI in the early 70's, we have not been able to observe
CNS correlates to AC functioning. We think that this may have resulted because of methodological
issues. In the remainder of this section, we describe a much-improved approach that remedies the prob-
lems of the previous methodologies.
1.2.2 Protocol
1.2.2.1 Introduction
Using an electroencephalograph (EEG), we corrected the shortcomings of the previous work. Each
stage of the investigation was built upon the results to date, and represented only modest extensions to
the previous stage. In addition, we used traditional EEG methods for data collection and analysis so
that comparisons with the established literature were straight forward .* We assumed that AC exists in
general (i.e., within the framework discussed above); however, our approach included a "local" verifica-
tion of AC's existence.
Consider event-related desynchronization (ERD). Spontaneous EEG reveals short-lasting, task- or
event-related amplitude changes in rhythmic activity within the alpha band (i.e., 8 to 12 Hz). This am-
plitude change or desynchronization is one of the elementary phenomena in EEG. It was first described
by Berger (1930) in scalp EEG as alpha blocking, and was later termed ERD by Pfurtscheller and Arani-
bar (1977). ERDs can be quantified as a function of time and can then be used to study cortical activa-
tion patterns during the planning of motor behavior (Pfurtscheller and Aranibar, 1979), sensory stimu-
lation, and cognitive processes (Pfurtscheller, Lindinger and Klimesch, 1986; Klimesch, Pfurtscheller and
LindingerKlimesh, 1987; and Sergeant, Geuze, and Van Winsum, 1987). Kaufman, Schwartz, Salustri
and Williamson (1990) provide a more recent example of cognitive-process-related ERDs, which they
call alpha suppression. They found a significantly shorter ERD when subjects simply responded to a
target stimulus, compared with the ERD that occurred when a subject had to search visual memory to
determine whether the target matched one previously presented. Because ERDs arise from external
* For these investigations, we did not require the special properties of a MEG (e.g., source localization), so we used the less com-
plex and more readily available EEG technology.
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stimuli, cognitive tasks, or motor functions, they are a likely variable to use to study how the CNS might
respond to AC stimuli. It would be odd, indeed, if AC was the only stimulus that did not produce an ERD.
1.2.2.2 Target Stimuli
To overcome the potential problems associated with the earlier stimuli, we used throughout this study
our standard National Geographic target pool. These images are complex, but there is an increasing
database in our laboratory that shows they are suitable for targets in AC experiments. In addition, the
results of the meta-analyses, which were described above, show a significant preference for complex
target systems as opposed to symbols or 100-millisecond long sinusoidal gratings. Our target pool was
digitized for later display on a laboratory PC. Figure 1 shows the stimulus timing. During a trial, a ran-
domly selected photograph was displayed for one second with an inter-stimulus interval (ISI) of 3 seconds.
Stimulus Window Post Stimulus
Next Stimulus Window
0
1
4
5
8
Time (Seconds)
Figure 1. Stimulus Timing.
While this stimulus-post stimulus pattern is fixed throughout the session, what happens in a stimulus
window is counter balanced between two stimulus types and random. We created a digital "image" that
was technically identical to the target images (e.g., same resolution, size) except that the color was nu-
merically identical to the background color of the display. These pseudo stimuli could not be detected
visually and, thus, served as a within run control.
1.2.2.3 Receivers
We asked three of our best receivers, 009, 372, and 389 to participate in the experiment. Because of the
pilot nature of this approach, we did not set the total number of trials; rather, time and receiver avail-
ability determined the number of trials for each receiver.
1.2.2.4 Trial Protocol
The following was the sequence of events for each trial:
(1) The receiver was wired at the standard positions for right and left hemisphere EEG for occipital
and parietal measurements referenced to CZ (i.e., the center of the top of the scalp).
(2) The receiver was seated in a sound-attenuated and electrically shielded room that is commonly
used for such measurements.
(3) One of two possible random sequences for pseudo and target stimuli was selected randomly, and
the trial was initiated.
(4) The receiver was instructed to silently obtain AC data for the first five minutes.
(5) The receiver debriefed his/her experience during the next five minutes in words and drawings.
(6) After the response had been collected, the receiver was presented visually with the exact same stim-
ulus pattern that was used in the first five minute interval as feedback.
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After a brief rest, a second trial was conducted, which was identical to the first except that a new target
was selected randomly and the second possible stimulus order was used in step 3 above.
1.2.2.5 AC-Behavior Analysis
An analyst who was otherwise blind to the experiment and trial details, was given a target pack number
that contained the original target and four decoy photographs in random order. The analyst's task was
to rank-order the five targets from best to worst match to the trial behavior response (i.e., writings and
drawings). With the usual sum-of-rank statistic, we could determine the overall level of AC functioning
in the study, for each receiver, and determine the level of AC for each trial.
1.2.2.6 ERD Analysis
The EEG record for each trial contains continuous samples at 500 samples/second for five minutes of
AC-stimuli and five minutes for direct stimuli (i.e., feedback of the target visually). Each epoch con-
tained random sequences of stimuli and pseudo stimuli. These data were low pass filtered to avoid
aliasing, then reduced by five, yielding an effective sampling rate of 100/second. The alpha content (i.e.,
7.81 to 12.7 Hz) was extracted with a 32-pole, FIR, zero phase shift, digital filter, and the alpha power
was estimated by the ensemble square.
We computed an ERD template for each receiver. For each direct stimulus during the feedback five
minute interval, the alpha power was ensemble averaged and normalized by the average alpha power
for one second of prestimulus time. The resulting ERDs were averaged to produce the template for
each trial. Figure 2 shows a typical ERD from one such calculation for receiver 372. We see that for
direct stimuli we expect a latency of approximately 0.5 second (i.e, time after stimulus onset), an 85%
reduction in alpha power and approximately two seconds for recovery.
This template was cross correlated with the data during the AC-portion of the trial. That is, for each
stimulus and for each pseudo stimulus, the maximum of the absolute value of the cross correlation for
±0.2 seconds surrounding the stimulus time was accumulated separately for each stimulus type. A stan-
dard non-parametric sum-of-ranks method was used to compare the resulting two distributions.
0.5F
Normalize Fractional Change
0.0
1-0.5
-1.0
- 1
O
1
2
3
Time (s)
Figure 2. Average ERD Normalized by Pre-Stimulus Mean.
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1.2.3 Results and Discussion
Table 1 shows the results of the blind rank-order judging for the three receivers;
Table 1.
AC Results
Receiver
Trials
<Rank>
ES
P-value
009
18
2.389
0.432
0.033
372
24
2.500
0.354
0.042
389
28
2.750
0.177
0.175
Total
70
2.571
0.303
0.006
Two receivers produced independently significant evidence for AC and the combined data were also
significant. Thus we have corrected one of the shortcomings of our earlier efforts; we have independent
evidence for AC.
Table 2 shows the results of the non-parameter Wilcoxon sum-of-ranks test between the distributions
resulting from the pseudo- and AC-stimuli.
Since the total number of stimuli per receiver was over 1600, the statistics shown in Table 2 are not en-
couraging. That is, given we observed significant evidence for AC, how is it that we do not see a signifi-
cant CNS response?
Table 2.
Wilcoxon Statistics for ERDs
Receiver
Z-score
P-value (2t)
009
-0.758
0.448
372
1.509
0.132
389
0.930
0.352
Total
0.938
0.175
To determine the overall sensitivity of our signal detection methodology, we inserted template ERD's
into copies of the EEG data. Averaged over all receivers, we found that a 0.2 % change from pre-stimu-
lus alpha would lead to a significant difference between the distributions resulting from the AC-stimuli
and the pseudo stimuli. This high sensitivity arises primarily because we have over 1600 stimuli per
receiver and because the cross correlations technique (i.e., frequently referred to as a matched filter)
can be shown to be the best possible signal detection algorithm in a noise environment. Yet, with this
sensitivity we did not observe a statistically significant ERD. We must examine some of our basic as-
sumptions, if we are to understand this result.
One assumption is that a putative ERD would result, on the average, from every AC-stimulus. To test
this, we re-analyzed the behavioral data post hoc. Rank-order analysis does not usually indicate the
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absolute quality of the AC. For example, a response that is a near-perfect description of the target re-
ceives a rank of one. But a response which is barely matchable to the target may also receive a rank of
one. Table 3 shows the rating scale that we used to perform a blind assessment of the quality of the AC
responses, regardless of their rank.
Table 3.
0-7 Point Assessment Scale
Score
Description
7
Excellent correspondence, including good analytical detail, with essentially no
incorrect information
6
Good correspondence with good analytical information and relatively little
incorrect information.
5
Good correspondence with unambiguous unique matchable elements, but
some incorrect information.
4
Good correspondence with several matchable elements intermixed with
incorrect information.
3
Mixture of correct and incorrect elements, but enough of the former to indicate
receiver has made contact with the site.
2
Some correct elements, but not sufficient to suggest results beyond chance
expectation.
1
Little correspondence.
10
0
No correspondence.
To apply this subjective scale to an AC trial, an analyst begins with a score of seven and determines if the
description for that score is correct. If not, then the analyst tries a score of six and so on. In this way the
scale is traversed from seven to zero until the score-description seems reasonable for the trial.
We thought that by analyzing the EEG data only when the AC functioning was high, we might have a
better chance of detecting an ERD. Unfortunately, we found no statistical change of the Wilcoxon Z-
scores only using data from the upper portions of the scale shown in Table 3. Thus, we must examine our
assumptions further.
One implicit assumption in the search for AC-ERDs is that there is a direct casual and temporally stable
link between the stimulus and the response. That is, since the data analysis involves an ensemble aver-
age over time, we must assume that changes in spontaneous alpha that are not associated with the stim-
ulus will be averaged out of the ensemble. It may be, however, that ACis more complex. In Honorton's
meta-analysis of the precognition data (Honorton and Ferrari, 1989), the precognition of complex visu-
al targets reported by Jahn (1982), and the anecdotal reports of many of our receivers all suggest that
AC may not be stable in time.
One explanation for the significant improvement in AC when complex targets are used instead of sym-
bols may be related to imagery. If a receiver knows the stimulus set (e.g., in the case of Zener cards; star,
cross, square, circle and wavy lines) then he or she is likely unable to differentiate between a vivid inter-
nal image of one of the symbols, which results from memory or imagination, and a putative "signal"
resulting from AC. In the case of more complex targets, such as National Geographic photographs,
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there may be a lesser tendency to remember all possible combinations of elements one may find in such
a target pool. If this speculation is correct, then internal imagery is a source of noise, and we might not
expect to see changes in occipital alpha.
Some receivers report that their internal experiences tend to be kinesthetic rather than visual. These
ideas have not been formally tested in the laboratory, yet they are commonly reported by many of our
excellent receivers. We have assumed that the CNS will respond as if the AC-signal stimulates neurons
near the visual cortex. Given that we were unable to take survey data over the entire scalp, it is possible
that we might not have positioned the EEG electrodes for optimal detection of an AC response.
We recommend that we adopt the new technology of functional magnetic resonance imaging, which can
survey the entire CNS. In addition, we suggest that we optimize the target pool to contain the largest
possible gradient of Shannon entropy. This should be the best possible next step to observe the CNS's
response to an AC stimulus.
2. Data Patterns/Parameter Correlations
The task of this section was to identify parameters that would potentially lead to an increase of AC func-
tioning and assist in determining optimal protocols for potential applications.
2.1 The Gradient of Shannon's Entropy
The primary activity in this category was to determine if the total change of Shannon entropy could be
confirmed as an intrinsic target variable. This effort constituted a replication of our finding during the
1992-1993 period, and led to three papers that have been accepted for publication at the Parapsycholog-
ical Annual Convention. We include these three papers as Appendices B, C, and D and summarize
their findings here.
The Ganzfeld experiments as summarized by Bem and Honorton (1994) suggest that using dynamic
targets produces stronger results than using static ones. Bem and Honorton, however, only analyzed
Ganzfeld studies that included the use of a sender. Since it is known that a sender is not a necessary
requirement in forced-choice trials, we designed and carried out a study to see if a sender is required in
non-Ganzfeld, free-response trials. In the first of two experiments, five experienced receivers partici-
pated in 40 trials each, 10 in each condition of a 2×2 design to explore sender and target type. We
observed significant effects for static targets (i.e., exact sum-of-rank probability of p ≤ 0.0073, effect
size = 0.248, n=100), chance results for dynamic targets (i.e., p ≤0.500, effect size = 0.000, n = 100),
and no interaction effects between sender and target-type conditions. One receiver slightly favored the
no sender condition (F(1,36) = 4.43, p ≤ 0.04), while another slightly favored static targets (F(1,36) =
5.47, p ≤ 0.04). We speculate that these surprising results (i.e., favoring static over dynamic targets)
arose, in part, because of the difference between a topically unbounded dynamic target pool and a topi-
cally restrictive static pool. In a second experiment, we redesigned the dynamic pool to match more
closely the properties of the static pool. Four of the receivers from the first study participated in at least
20 trials each, 10 in each target-type condition. No senders were used throughout this experiment. We
observed a significant increase in anomalous cognition for the new dynamic targets (X2 = 9.942, df = 1,
p ≤ 1.6×10-3), and an increase in anomalous cognition for the static targets (X2 = 3.158, df = 1, p ≤
0.075). We conclude that a sender is not a necessary requirement for free-response anomalous cogni-
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tion. A rank-order analysis showed no target-type dependencies in the second study (X2 = 0, df = 1, p≤
0.5), but a rating analysis revealed some difference favoring dynamic targets (t = 1.32, df = 68, p <
0.096) for the significant receivers. Based on our analysis, we believe a fundamental argument suggests
that in free-response anomalous cognition experiments, dynamic targets should be better than static
ones.
The experimental result, however, was surprising-it was directly opposite to the results that were
derived from the Ganzfeld database. The topics of the dynamic targets were virtually unlimited, where-
as the topics for the static targets were constrained in content, size of cognitive elements, and range of
affect. In our second experiment, we redesigned the target pools to correct this unbalance and observed
significant improvement of AC functioning. We incorporate these findings into a definition of target
pool bandwidth and propose that the proper selection of bandwidth will lead to a reduction of incorrect
information in free-response AC.
Based upon our early entropy result and using the knowledge gained about the target pool bandwidth,
we propose that the average total change of Shannon's entropy is a candidate for an intrinsic target
property. We find a significant correlation of the gradient of Shannon's entropy (Spearman's @ = 0.337,
df = 31, t = 1.99, p ≤ 0.028) with an absolute measure of the quality of the anomalous cognition. This
result is a successful replication of our 1992 finding.
Our identification of an intrinsic target property that correlates with the quality of AC is an extremely
important finding. Not only does it instruct us to select better target material for laboratory studies, but
it also guides us in task selection for practical applications.
2.2 Senders in the Ganzfeld
Another primary activity in this category was to assess the role of a sender in an AC experiment. We
subcontracted to the Psychology Department at the University of Edinburgh to conduct a detailed test
using the methodology of the Ganzfeld. Appendix E contains their final reports which detail their ex-
periment and results. We summarize their findings in this section.
The Ganzfeld methodology differs in three fundamental ways from our usual AC experiment:
(1) A mild altered state is used to elicit AC functioning.
(2) Senders are used in a "telepathic" modality.
(3) The receivers perform their own the rank-order judging in the analysis of the data.
Otherwise the Ganzfeld protocol is similar to ours. A receiver is asked to register his/her impression of
an isolated target that is randomly selected from a pre-defined set. We asked Dr. Robert L. Morris to
use this methodology to determine the role of the sender. As they will be reporting at the next Parapsy-
chological Association Annual Convention, they found, as we did, that a sender is not a necessary partic-
ipant in successful AC experiments. In addition, they were able to show that the sender may not partici-
pate in any significant way in the process. As a consequence of this experiment, they are considering
dropping the sender in all of their future experiments.
While it is agreed that perhaps for psychological reasons, some receivers may produce better results
with a sender, there appear to be no mechanistic arguments favoring the use of a sender.
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2.3 Q-Sort Personality Assessment
The objective of this study was to explore potential personality variables as they relate to AC ability
through the use of the Q-Sort method.
2.3.1 Introduction
Historically, a wide range of psychological tests have been used in an attempt to detect correlations be-
tween personality variables and AC performance. These tests have included standard clinical batteries
as well as the Personality Assessment System (Lantz, 1987). Some of these have yielded statistical cor-
relations; however, the magnitude of the correlations are often too small for predictive purposes.
The Q-Sort differs from other methods of personality assessment in that it is not a psychological test,
but merely an empirical system devised to permit individual personalities to be comprehensively de-
scribed and quantitatively compared. First conceived by William Stephensen, the Q-Sort method has
become a useful tool for comparing personality variables between a wide variety of different popula-
tions (Block, 1978). For example, studies have ranged from examining the differences between effec-
tive and ineffective liars to analyzing the difference between individuals who tend to rely upon external
visual fields rather than proprioceptive (i.e., muscular skeletal) cues in determining true vertical.
One common difficulty with traditional self-report personality tests is that they ask the subject to identi-
fy where they fit on a continuous spectrum of pre-determined dimensions. For example, one dimension
of the MBTI ranges between extroversion and introversion. Even if the subject chooses not to describe
him/her self in these terms, nonetheless, they must respond. The Q-Sort allows the subjects to deter-
mine the appropriate dimensions for themselves.
In 1989 we conducted a preliminary test of this method using 14 individuals, including three receivers
who were known to be talented in anomalous cognition (AC). Cluster analysis was used to assemble the
results of individual Q-Sort scores into groups of similar profiles, at the same time attempting to create
groups that are as different from one another as possible. The result is a visual display called a cluster
diagram. To the 14 receivers, we added three standard profiles; a normal personality profile, two differ-
ent types of pathology personality profiles, and a tentative AC-Profile; an average of the personality
traits of the three known viewers. The result was that the pathological profiles were in a cluster by them-
selves while the normal profile and the tentative AC-Profile were clustered together with the known
receivers.
As a result of the 1989 Q-Sort work, we proposed to expand the use of the Q-Sort and to attempt to
answer the following questions:
(1) What personality variables are common to those individuals who perform well on AC tasks?
(2) How do the personality descriptions of individuals who do not do well on AC tasks differ from those
who do?
(3) What might an "ideal" AC profile look like?
2.3.2 The Q-Sort Method
For each individual, the Q-Sort method involved sorting 100 cards into nine categories with an assigned
number of cards placed within each category. The 100 Q-Sort cards look something like a deck of nor-
mal playing cards, except that on the face of each is written a single psychological statement in a theoret-
ically neutral form (e.g., "Initiates Humor"). Each psychological statement is written in a way so as to
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suggest a continuum rather than an either/or dichotomy. The numbers of cards within each of nine cate-
gories must be 5, 8, 12, 16, 18, 16, 12, 8, 5, respectively. The first category represents those psychody-
namic elements that are least characteristic of the individual, while the last category represents those
elements most characteristic of the individual and the middle categories represent a continuum in be-
tween. The prescribed distribution is a powerful tool, in that it forces individuals into making difficult
definitive decisions about their own personalities at the extreme ends of a scale while also allowing for
some flexibility. The Q-Sort is self-administered and takes approximately 20 minutes per individual.
2.3.2.1 Subject Selection
Thirty four individuals participated in the Q-Sort study. All were a self-selected subset of individuals
who consented to participate in other AC experiments conducted by SAIC, recruited from the profession-
al and academic communities within the greater San Francisco Bay area, drawn from the student and
faculty populations of Stanford University, the Institute for Transpersonal Psychology, and other neigh-
boring educational and research institutions. The age of all participants ranged from 16 to 60.
2.3.2.2 Procedure
The following is a step-by-step description of the method used to collect the Q-Sort personality as-
sessments. This process is done only one time by each subject.
(1) A participant was greeted by the PI in the Cognitive Sciences Laboratory at Science Applications
International Corporation in a warm and friendly way and was shown to a comfortable, quiet loca-
tion within the laboratory.
(2) Following a brief "get acquainted" period, the procedure was explained and (s)he was encouraged
to ask any questions about the nature of the study.
(3) The PI provided a consent form, typed instructions, a record sheet, and a deck of 100 Q-Sort cards.
(4) The PI left the participant alone to sort the 100 cards into the nine categories.
(5) The record sheet, instructions, and deck of cards was then collected by the PI.
2.3.2.3 Analysis
All personality descriptions were put into a computer database for cluster analysis. This kind of analysis
assembles Q-Sort descriptions into groups of similar profiles, and attempts to create groups that are as dif-
ferent from one another as possible. The result of such an analysis is a visual display of clusters, such as the
one in Figure 3. Talented AC receivers are indicated by a (*) and seem cluster around the normal pro-
file. Fortunately, the two personality pathology profiles are in a cluster by themselves.
2.3.3 Results and Conclusions
The results of the cluster analysis can be seen in Figure 3. Three standard profiles; a normal personality
profile, two different types of personality pathology profiles, and a tentative AC-Profile were added to
the analysis. The AC-Profile was composed of the combined Q-Sorts of six known talented receivers
(i.e., 454, 372, 009, 389, 518, and 330). These receivers were chosen on the basis of their repeated suc-
cessful performance on AC tasks within our laboratory. From our analysis, we find that good AC receiv-
ers think of themselves as:
· Possessing a wide range of interest.
· Thinking and associating ideas in unusual ways.
· Valuing intellectual and cognitive matters.
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· Concerned with philosophical problems.
. Being verbally fluent and can express ideal well.
They also believe that they are not:
· Subtly negative and do not tend to undermine, obstruct, or sabotage.
· Guileful, deceitful, manipulative or opportunistic.
· Ego-defensive or have a small reserve of integration.
· Exploitive or create dependencies in people.
· Self-pitying or feel victimized by life.
It remains to be seen if this general statements are predictive of good AC performance. They do, how-
ever, represent a personality profile of our best receivers.
For example, in a study investigating a possible correlation between ESP and creativity using subjects
from a well-know music academy in New York City, Schlitz and Honorton (1992) suggest that subjects
who exhibit greater cognitive flexibility and elaboration produce higher AC scores. The five Q-Sort
items most characteristic of the AC-Profile would tend to support this idea.
The advantages of using the Q-Sort method of personality description is that it is easy and inexpensive
to implement and analyze. The problems are that the results are conditioned both by the content of the
Q-Sort card set and the willingness of the sorter to give a candid and accurate description of themselves.
These results are only preliminary and little can be known until we have a much larger database of reli-
able AC viewers. In time it is hoped that the Q-Sort may prove useful in predicting where we should
begin to look in the general population to find successful AC viewers.
2.4 Improved AC Evaluation for Applications
Under this section, we were asked to provide improved AC analytical techniques that might be more
germane in an application setting. We have delivered a complete description of one such technique as a
separate document. This technique expands our fuzzy set analysis to include adaptive learning based
upon real-time feedback.
3. Theoretical Issues
The objective was to identify models for physical mechanisms for AC and to develop protocols for test-
able experiments using select individuals. We reported our theoretical approach in an interim technical
report; however, we include it here for completeness.
3.1 Probable Futures
Since the dawn of history, mankind has been fascinated by the "what ifs" associated with the probabilis-
tic paths that form the future and form the myriad worlds of "what might have been." Mankind's fas-
cination with predicting the future evolved into the mathematical science of probability theory. Howev-
er, classical probability theory is a description which is overlaid on an assumed physical reality. With the
advent of quantum theory, alternative paths to the same end took on a physical reality. The very fact
that alternative paths exist change the probability of the outcome. There is no classical equivalent.
Suddenly the world of "what ifs" has become comingled with the worlds of "what might have been."
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Figure 3. Cluster Diagram
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Hysteric
Paranoid
7
393
148
150
183
531
28
* 454
908
370
432
23
125
* 372
* g
702
Normal
355
124
AC-Profile
* 389
171
956
* 518
178
226
* 330
220
789
3
137
10
720
100
329
374
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This idea has been experimentally verified in recent experiments conducted at Rochester University. It
has been shown that the physical outcome of a quantum mechanical experiment depends not only upon
what is being measured, but also on what could be measured, even though it wasn't.
1
The implication for AC mechanisms is that precognition may be the underlying mechanism. If, for
some yet unknown reason, humans have access to probable futures rather than actual futures, then the
perception appears not to contradict the rules of physics.
3.2 Einstein, Poldasky, Rosen Paradox (EPR)
1
The paradox suggest possible information transport during the collapse of a wave function. It arises
naturally when considering two-particle correlations and the effects of measuring the state of one par-
ticle which gives rise to unambiguous knowledge of the state of the correlated particle even though it
may be very far from the measured particle at the time the measurement is made. While no one any
longer questions the validity of the predictions of quantum mechanics for correlated systems, the very
fact of their validity has caused a philosophical revolution. There is no underlying reality, no absolute
reality. There is only reality as defined by measurements made by an observer.
There is substantial anomalous mental phenomena (AMP) literature on what are called Observational
Theories (OT). It is possible that the EPR paradox and its implications may serve as a physics base for
the OTs. There is a major problem both with the OTs and EPR as models for perception. Brain func-
tioning at room temperature appears not to be a quantum system; therefore, care must be exercised
before we can demonstrate the value of EPR for AMP mechanisms.
3.3 General Relativity
The recent resurgence of interest in Einstein's general theory of relativity has lead to some startling
theoretical conclusions about the nature of space-time again bringing to the forefront the fact that sci-
ence has not unveiled all the secrets associated with time. One such piece of work is Matt Visser's paper
on traversable wormholes (Visser, 1989). This paper predicts that it is physically possible to transport
energy (and, therefore, information) between remote space-time points without traversing the classical
distance between the space-time points.
For sometime it has been known that even according to Einstein's special theory of relativity, it is pos-
sible to describe mathematically a fully consistent universe in which everything moves faster than the
speed of light. The particles inhabiting such a universe have been given the name tachyons while, in
contrast, the particles with which we are familiar are named tardyons. The important fact is that neither
particle can ever travel at the speed of light. Photons, of course, are common to both universes. More-
over, this is a non-quantum mechanical description. We know that in quantum theory it is possible to
violate such constraints providing that we do so for short enough periods. The question of whether a
tardyon can exist as a tachyon for a short period of time merits investigation.
From a heuristic perspective, reverse information flow (i.e., precognition) appears to describe much of
the AMP data. While Visser's calculations are not a theory of precognition, at a minimum they demon-
strate that physics may allow for the macroscopic, but statistical, breach of causality. We anticipate that
a continuation of these ideas may lead to a law for causality similar to the Second Law of Thermody-
namics. That is, on the average causality must hold, but locally there may be a slight statistical reversal
that is compensated for elsewhere such that the average is correct.
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3.4 Time and Entropy
The relationship between time and entropy is once more open to question. For nearly two hundred
years, scientists have taken the position that the entropy of a closed system can never decrease with time
and that, on the scale of the universe, entropy always increases with increasing time. Recently however,
Steven Hawking raised the possibility that macroscopic time or psychological time, the time that we
perceive, is actually determined by the change of entropy (Hawking, 1988). Similar conclusions were
reached at about the same time by Tony Rothman from the Center for Relativity at the University of
Texas (Rothman, 1987). Rothman discusses the seven arrows of time that represent the distinction be-
tween microscopic reversible time and the macroscopic time as experienced by intelligent life. This
concept was first proposed by Szilard (1929) in the paper, "On the decrease of entropy in a thermody-
namic system by the intervention of intelligent beings."
Given that we showed experimentally that the total change of entropy is related to the quality of AC,
this theoretical approach seems most promising (May, Spottiswoode and James, 1994).
3.5 Novel Potentials
Classical mechanics and, for the most part, quantum mechanics have treated potentials as convenient
mathematical descriptions for which there was no physical instantiation. Recently a series of clever ex-
periments have dispelled that view by showing that a potential can have an effect on a particle even
when there was no corresponding force present. The electromagnetic vector and scalar potentials or
torsion fields are examples of such novel potentials.
At this time, the existence of anomalous perturbation (AP) remains open. While there are intriguing
experiments, the database for AP is substantially less than for AC. A theoretical approach for AP using
novel potentials is probably premature; however, it may be possible that such potentials could act as a
"carrier" of AC information.
4. Applied Research
The task objective was to focus on items that might lead to improved functioning through protocol mod-
ification and to provide demonstrations of potential applications. We conducted three primary activi-
ties for this tasking under the direction of physicist S. James P. Spottiswoode.
4.1 Replication of a Russian Experiment
In a series of papers, Russian physicist Alexander Parkhomov has reported curious results from a simple
high energy particle detector equipped with a diffraction grating. Parkhomov's detector consisted of a
photographic emulsion with a small air filled space above it sandwiched between two glass plates. A
steady potential difference of slightly less than the breakdown voltage of the air gap was maintained
across this structure. Parkhomov denoted this device a Narrow Gap Spark Chamber (NGSC) and simi-
lar detectors, though with much larger gaps and usually filled with other gases, are widely used for de-
tecting high energy particles. Parkhomov mounted periodic structures in front of his detectors, with the
intention that these might act as diffraction gratings for particles. These structures resembled optical
diffraction gratings, but were composed of alternating layers of high and low density materials, for
instance steel/cardboard and glass/air. With this apparatus installed in front of a window and left to
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operate for one to two days, Parkhomov reported that a fraction of the resulting emulsions displayed
some hundreds of exposed spots per square cm. Furthermore, he reported that regular variations in the
spot density across these films was observed consistent with diffraction effects for particles with wave-
lengths in the range 0.05 to 2 mm.
Parkhomov's initial interpretation (Parkhomov, a) of these results was that his apparatus was detecting
very low energy electron neutrinos gravitationally trapped in orbits around the earth and sun. He rea-
soned as follows: The velocity for a stable earth orbit at ground level is 7.9 Km sec-1 while particles in
highly elliptical orbits have a velocity at perigee of 11 Km sec-1. Parkhomov noted that at 7.9 Km sec-1
and 11 Km sec-1 particles of 23 eV mass would have de Broglie wavelengths of 2.0 mm and 1.4 mm
respectively, which were two of the most prominent wavelengths that he had observed in his diffraction
experiments. The measurement of the electron neutrino mass is experimentally very difficult, and be-
cause of their great theoretical interest in particle physics and cosmology, many groups have worked on
the problem. The best current estimate is that the mass is under 13 eV at a 95% confidence level. How-
ever, during the 1980's the rest mass of the electron neutrino was experimentally measured by Lyubmov
and Tretyakov at the Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics (ITEP) in Moscow to be 23 eV,
and Parkhomov used this figure in his calculations. Other particle wavelengths observed in his diffrac-
tion experiments he associated with neutrino velocities corresponding to solar and galactic orbits.
The interpretation of the observed fringes in terms of gravitationally bound electron neutrinos is prob-
lematic not only because of the doubtful mass assumption; but, it is also is inconsistent with well estab-
lished measurements of the ground level neutrino flux and the neutrino's cross section. The ground
level solar neutrino flux is approximately 6 x 1010 cm-2 sec-1 and the cross section for electron neutri-
nos in the 1 MeV energy range to interact with nuclear matter is around 10-44 cm-2. Given the small
mass of the material available in Parkhomov's detector for neutrino capture the expected detection rate
is approximately 2 x 10-8 sec-1. Parkhomov reports up to "several hundred tracks per cm2 after a 24
hour exposure," a rate some seven orders of magnitude greater. As this calculation shows, a neutrino
flux some 107 times more intense than the solar neutrino flux would have to exist at ground level to ex-
plain his results in this manner, but such a flux has not been reported from the many experiments under-
way to investigate the solar neutrino shortfall problem. In a subsequent paper, Parkhomov does not
mention neutrinos as a possible explanation of his results and refers to an unknown radiation as the
cause (Parkhomov, b).
Parkhomov's results are extremely intriguing and merit attempted replication. However, at first sight
they are sufficiently surprising and the possibility that some artifact exists in his experimental method
and equipment cannot be ignored. The small dimensions of the air gaps in his NGSC's render them
sensitive to surface contamination and possible arcing due to dirt on the glass plates. Furthermore, the
distribution of spots on the films were hand counted under a microscope, a process which is susceptible
to error and bias. While he does not present precise statistics for his experiments, he reports that fringe
patterns were observed in only 1/3 of the attempts and none at all were observable during two separate
periods of two months. If the effects observed are due to the diffraction of real particles, then they show
great variability. Alternately the observations may be caused by some uncontrolled experimental or
environmental factor including, as some Russian researcher's believe, possible anomalous perturbation
effects.
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4.1.1 Background
Charged with the task of investigating Parkhomov's measurements, two fundamentally different ap-
proaches could be taken.
. Use the best currently available detector technology.
· Use an exact replication of his experimental setup.
The first option has the advantage that a well understood and stable detection system could be used.
However, since the nature of the particles responsible for Parkhomov's results is unknown (if indeed
they are due to particles), it is not easy to choose what type of detector to employ. Additionally, if his
results were in fact due to some kind of artifact in his detector design, the possibility of discovering this
artifact would be lost. The exact replication route permits the discovery of artifacts, if they existed in his
work, and does not require us to make assumptions about the properties of the particles, if any, which
he detected. We therefore opted to try to reproduce his detector design as precisely as possible from his
published description.
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4.1.2 Detector Design
Parkhomov's description of his detector is fairly detailed, though certain details are not clear. It con-
sisted essentially of a stack of two glass plates with a conductive graphite film applied to their outer sur-
faces. Sandwiched into the space between the plates was a small air gap of approximately 200 microns
and a photographic emulsion. A potential difference in the range of 2,000V to 2,500V was applied
across the graphite films. The plates and film were enclosed in a light-proof metal container. No de-
tails of how this structure was held together, or how the high voltage was fed to the plates are provided in
his papers. Our design is shown in Figure 4. The 101.6 mm by 152.4 mm glass plates are 2.4 mm thick
and are enclosed in a box fabricated from mild steel sheet. The bias voltage enters through a coaxial
socket mounted in the top of the enclosure and is fed to a track on a piece of printed circuit board
(PCB). Mounted on this PCB are eight beryllium-copper springs which make contact with the graphite
coating on one of the glass plates.
The other half of the external enclosure has similar springs to provide a ground contact to the graphite
film on the other plate. A Teflon spacer cut to make a rectangular annulus around the area occupied by
the film separates the glass plates. The Be-Cu springs place the glass plates and spacer stack under com-
pression when the system is assembled prior to use. The device is designed so that a standard Kodak
lithographic sheet film of 127mm by 101.6mm size fits snugly inside the Teflon spacer and the detector
can be easily assembled under dark light conditions.
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Teflon Spacer
Top Case
Circuit Board
Be-Cu Contact
Graphite
Glass
Air Gap
Film
Glass
Graphite
Bottom Case
Figure 4. Cross-Section of the Detector (Not to Scale).
4.1.3 Film Measurement and Data Analysis
One area where it seemed perfectly reasonable to improve upon Parkhomov's methodology was to au-
tomate the process of measuring the position and size of spots on the films. Rather than using a micro-
scope and reticule, as did Parkhomov's team, we use a computer image analysis system called khoros.
The high contrast lithographic film is developed and scanned by a document scanner at a resolution of
300 dots per inch. The resulting data is processed through a khoros program that locates each exposed
spot and returns its coordinates and radius. This data is then further processed in a standard statistical
software package, Splus, where we look for periodicity in the spatial density of the spots for various
ranges of spot size. We will use Fourier analysis to look for periodicities in the spot density and Monte-
Carlo methods will be utilized to generate random pseudo-images and thus obtain an accurate measure
of the significance of the spot distributions observed in the experimental data.
4.1.4 Gratings
In accordance with the descriptions given by Parkhomov, we have constructed a number of periodic
structures, or gratings. Using glass microscope slides we have made glass/air gratings. We have also
prepared gratings using steel sheet and cardboard which are close to the dimensions given by Parkho-
mov. All these gratings are linear, rather than circular, and are very similar to those employed by Park-
homov.
4.1.5 Experimental Program
-
Currently, we have two finished detectors with four others in the process of construction. Our intention
is to run six detectors simultaneously to look at a large number of combinations of diffraction gratings
and orientations. Presently we are testing our first detectors to determine whether the observed spots
on the exposed films are due to the passage of cosmic rays and other extraneous radiation, or to sparks
unconnected with particle events. We are concerned that with the high field present in the air gap be-
tween the glass plates, we may be seeing spots due to discharges occurring at points where there is con-
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tamination on the surface of the glass plates. The system may also be sensitive to the ambient humidity
and we are investigating whether there is a relationship between humidity and spot density. As a defini-
tive test of background radiation detection we are currently comparing results from the detector when
placed on the roof, and in the basement, of a five story building. Cosmic ray flux should vary by more
than 50% between these locations, and we wish to check that the spot density registered by the detector
agrees with these calculations. A typical early test exposure from the detector is shown on Figure 5.
=
.
.
.
·
·
Figure 5. Test Exposure: 2,250 Volts for 28 Hours.
In comparison with Parkhomov's published photographs and statistics, the spot density on this film is
much smaller. The reason for this discrepancy is currently unknown. We expect to have accumulated
some hundreds of hours of recording time with these detectors in the next months; at which time, more
definitive conclusions about Parkhomov's work should be possible.
Recent results of our test chambers are very suggestive of the same effects that Parkhomov has seen. We
will provide the final results of this experiment as they become available.
4.2 Attempts at Message Sending Using AC
The objective of this experiment was to adapt a standard AC experiment to a forced-choice situation.
An additional objective was to incorporate fuzzy set technology into a "crisp," two-by-five, error cor-
recting block code to improve AC detection in a message sending/receiving metaphor. We reported this
experiment in an interim technical report; however, we summarize it here for completeness.
4.2.1 Background
In the Spring of 1992, SAIC conducted a pilot experiment that was designed to explore the potential for
maximizing the reliability of AC responses through objective and rapid analysis. In this study, we re-
verted to using a dichotomous binary procedure as opposed to a fuzzy set technique. By carefully select-
ing the dichotomous elements, we could use standard block coding techniques to incorporate complete
single error correction, also including a few two-fold corrections as well. We used a message sending
motif as a test-bed for this kind of analysis.
Unfortunately, in that experiment, only one receiver demonstrated an effect size larger than 0.20 (i.e.,
0.22) for evidence of an AC phenomena, and no evidence of enhanced detection of AC was seen.
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A number of difficulties were discovered in this experiment that may have rendered the results incon-
clusive:
· In an attempt to make the targets dichotomous within target packs and at the same time interesting to
view, targets within the pool ranged in scale from a panoramic scene of a cityscape to a photograph of
three chairs or an image of three geometric shapes, and thus possessed a large target-pool bandwidth
(i.e., a large set of differing target elements). Since receivers were told in advance that the targets
could contain absolutely any material, they were unable to censor their internal experiences, which
may have resulted in enhanced intrinsic receiver noise, and thus added "noise" to the response.
. Each encoding bit was linked to only one precept (e.g., the single target element of water). This exag-
gerated the importance of the chosen dichotomous elements. For example, if a receiver failed to
sense water in the target but managed to sense most other aspects of the target, regardless of whether
they were part of the bit structure, then the BCH coding was not particularly applicable.
· In an AC application, a fundamental imbalance existed in the bit structure. The BCH coding assumes
that binary zero is "assertive." That is, in AC when water is not indicated in the response, it is equiva-
lent to indicating the water is definitely not in the target. Unfortunately, in AC experiments it is pos-
sible or even likely that unless a receiver specifies explicitly that water is not present, then the pres-
ence or absence is indeterminate. Maybe water exists in the target but was not noticed or was
unreported by the receiver. Similarly, water may not exist in the target and a non-response is equiva-
lent to an assertive no. These two cases are, of course, indistinguishable. The net effect is to render
the BCH coding invalid.
In the current experimental protocol, we attempted to correct the problems discussed above so that
potential enhancement of the detection of AC might be optimized. The following modifications were
made:
. The target-pool bandwidth was reduced by using the National Geographic static target pool, which
has been successful for many previous AC experiments.
· Sensitivity to single BCH encoding bits was reduced by using a number of fuzzy-set elements to define
each BCH bit. Thus, each BCH bit did not rely upon a single precept, but rather represented classes
of different precepts.
We had anticipated that these improvements would allow for much stronger AC and provide a more
sensitive test of whether BCH error-correcting could be successfully applied to AC detection. We used
long-distance associative AC tasks as a test bed for this procedure.
This experiment was similar to a traditional AC experiment. A target was selected randomly; a receiver
was asked to describe that target; and a quantitative assessment of the match was made. It differs, how-
ever, only in the construction of the targets and in the quantitative analysis.
4.2.2 Conclusions
No receiver produced significant deviations in the sum-of-ranks statistic, and binary numbers were not
determined beyond chance expectation. Even though our best receivers participated in this particular
study, their results were not up to the standard which we have traditionally seen from them. We could
speculate that possibly the experimental conditions were significantly different from their usual ex-
pectations (i.e., at home or in our laboratory) and that travel and performance anxiety may have con-
tributed to the lack of AC functioning; however, very occasionally do they not perform as expected and
excuses are not necessary. We strongly urge that a replication be tried under laboratory conditions to
test the new approach of the fuzzy set encoding. At this time, even though there are a few excellent ex-
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amples in the literature of using AC for message sending, we suggest that this might not be an optimum
use of the phenomenon.
4.3 Improved Analysis
We have delivered an approach to the analysis of application-oriented AC using fuzzy set technology as
part of a separate document. We summarize the pertinent aspects of the approach here for complete-
ness.
=
We have been conducting application-like experiments for a number of years. These test-bed experi-
ments have an advantage in that total ground truth is known in advance. A list of items, therefore, can
be constructed that would generally be of interest. We illustrate this approach to fuzzy set analysis with
one of our test-bed experiments. We constructed three categories of items: (1) Functions of the Site, (2)
Physical Relationships, and (3) Objects. Table 4 shows a partial list of these three types of items for our
test-bed experiment. The complete list spans many pages.
Table 4.
Partial Element List for a Test-bed Experiment
Target/Response Element
W
Τ(μ)
R(u)
Functions (1.0)
Directed Energy
5
1.0
0.9
Test Experiment
2
1.0
1.0
Noise Generation
1
0.4
0.6
Operation in Space
1
0.0
1.0
Relationships (0.75)
Power Source Above Beam Line
1
1.0
0.0
Electrons Flow Through Beam Line
1
1.0
0.7
Pipes in and out of Sphere
1
0
1.0
Objects (0.5)
External Electron Beam
2.5
1.0
0.0
High Security Area
1
1.0
1.0
Bundled Metal Rods
1
0.0
1.0
Two types of data must be incorporated into such a list to provide an accurate measure; an a priori list of
items that are definitely part of the target and items that are mentioned by the receiver that were not
recognized as being part of the target. In Table 4, we have indicated overall weighting factors of 1.0,
0.75, and 0.5 for functions, relationships, and objects, respectively. That is, in this experiment, we were
primarily interested in functions. Depending upon the task, the formalism accepts any appropriate
weighting factors. The column w is a within-group weighting factor. That is, the item Directed Energy is
five time more important than is Noise Generation. T(u) represents the degree to which the item is pres-
ent in the target. For example, although Noise Generation is present in the target, it is roughly only 40%
apparent; whereas Pipes in and out of Sphere is not present at all. R(u) is the degree to which the analyst
is convinced that the element is indicated in the response. For example, the analyst was 90% convinced
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that the receiver meant Directed Energy even though it was not specifically mentioned. All items that are
specifically mentioned receive an R(u) = 1. Notice that we included all items mentioned by the receiver
regardless if the item was present in the target. We set their relative weights all equal to one.
To arrive at a meaningful number from these data, we use fuzzy set formalism (May, Utts, Humphrey,
Luke, Frivold, and Trask, 1990b). We compute the accuracy and the reliability of the response to the
target system. The accuracy is the fraction of items in the target that were described correctly, and the
reliability is the fraction of items in the response that were present in the target system. It is possible to
obtain a very accurate description with poor reliability. Suppose the receiver inserted an encyclopedia
as his or her response. In principle, nearly all aspects of the target might be mentioned; however, a large
number of response items would not be present in the target. Thus the certification number, the value
which may be used to describe the quality of the response, must be related to both the accuracy and the
reliability. Formally, the accuracy and reliability are defined by:
j=1
N
Accuracy =
> W, Min[ Thu), Rfu)]
SW T(M)
N
j=1
N
> W, Min (T,(u), Rfu)]
j=1
Reliability =
j=1
N
SW, R(u)
(1)
where N is the total number of elements in the evaluation form; 7; and R; are the target and response
score for element j; and Wj is the product of the within-group weight, w, and the group weight. For ex-
ample, in the Functions group the w are equal to the W because the functions weight is one. Since the
Relationships group weight is 0.75, the within-group weights shown in Table 4 must all be multiplied by
0.75 to form the Wi for those elements in this group.
To be sensitive to the interplay between Accuracy and Reliability, we propose that Certification = Accu-
racy × Reliability.
To illustrate the use the Equations 1, we demonstrate how to compute these items using only the data we
show in Table 4. We find the Accuracy = 0.744. the Reliability = 0.764, and Certification = 0.568. Ran-
dom utterances compared to random targets roughly yield 0.3 for both Accuracy and Reliability. That is
approximately 1/3 of whatever is said can be found in any target and 1/3 of any target can be described
regardless what is said. An approximate minimum Certification of 0.1 would represent chance matches.
Anything above 0.3 would can be considered as solid evidence of "contact" with the target even in an
application setting.
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III. GLOSSARY
Not all the terms defined below are germane to this report, but they are included here for completeness.
In a typical anomalous mental phenomena (AMP) task, we define:
· Anomalous Cognition (AC)-A form of information transfer in which all known sensorial stimuli are
absent. That is, some individuals are able to gain access to information by an as yet unknown process.
· Agent-An individual who attempts to influence a target system.
· Analyst-An individual who provides a quantitative measure of AC.
· AP-A form of interaction with matter in which all known physical mechanisms are absent. That is,
some individuals are able to influence matter by an as yet unknown process.
· Feedback-After a response has been secured, information about the intended target is displayed to
the receiver.
· Monitor-An individual who monitors an AC session to facilitate data collection.
· Protocol-A template for conducting a structured data collection session.
1
· Receiver-An individual who attempts to perceive and report information about a target.
. Response-Material that is produced during an AC session in response to the intended target.
· Sender/Beacon-An individual who, while receiving direct sensorial stimuli from an intended target,
acts as a putative transmitter to the receiver.
· Session-A time period during which AC data are collected.
· Specialty-A given receiver's ability to be particularly successful with a given class of targets (e.g.,
people as opposed to buildings).
. Target-An item that is the focus of an AMP task (e.g., person, place, thing, event).
. Target Designation-A method by which a specific target, against the backdrop of all other possible
targets, is identified to the receiver (e.g., geographical coordinates).
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Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Second Edition. Lawrence
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Hawking, S. (1988), A Brief History of Time, Bantam Books.
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Jahn, R. G. (1982). The persistent paradox of psychic phenomena: an engineering perspecitve.
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Klimesch, W., Pfurtscheller, G., and Lindinger, G. (1987). Das Corticale Aktivierungsmuster bei
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Lantz, N. (1987). Review of the personality assessment system. Final Report, Project 1291, SRI
International, Menlo Park, California.
May, E. C., Targ, R., and Puthoff, H. E. (1977). Possible EEG correlates to remote stimuli under
conditions of sensory shielding. Electro 77 Professional Program, Special Session: The State of the
Art in Psychic Research, IEEE, New York, NY.
May, E. C. Luke, W. L. W., Trask, V. V., and Frivold, T. J. (1990a). Observation of neuromagnetic fields
in response to remote stimuli. The Proceedings of the Presented Papers of the Parapsychological
Association 33rd Annual Convention, National 4-H Center, Chevy Chase, MD.
May, E. C., Utts, J. M., Humphrey, B. S., Luke, W. L. W., Frivold, T. J .. and Trask, V. V. (1990b).
Advances in remote viewing analysis. Journal of Parapsychology, 54. 194-228.
May, E. C., Luke, W. L. W., and Lantz, N. D. (1992), Phenomenological research and analysis. Final
Report: 6.2 and 6.3, Science Applications International Corporation, Cognitive Sciences
Laboratory.
May, E. C., Spottiswoode, S. J., and James, C. L. (1994). Shannon entropy as an intrinsic target
property: Toward a reductionist model of anomalous cognition. Submitted for publication in the
Journal of Parapsychology.
Parkomov, A.G. (a). Experimental Detection of Weakly-Interacting Low Energy Particles. Private
communication (1993).
Parkomov, A.G. (b). Spark Chamber and Periodic Structures: Unknown Radiation Recording. Private
communication (1994).
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Pfurtscheller, G. and Aranibar, A. (1977). Event-related cortical desynchronization detected by power
measurements of scalp EEG. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 42. 817-826.
Pfurtscheller, G. and Aranibar, A. (1979). Evaluation of event-related desynchronization (ERD)
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Pfurtscheller, G., Lindinger, G., and Klimesch, W. (1986). Dynamisches EEG-Mapping-Bildgebendes
Verfahren fuer die Unterschung Perzeptiver, Motorischer und Kognitiver Hirnleistunger. Z.
EEG-EMG, 17. 113-116.
Puthoff, H. E. and Targ. R. (1976). A perceptual channel for information transfer over kilometer
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Radin, D. I. and Nelson, R. D. (1989). Evidence for consciousness-related anomalies in random
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Rothman, T. (February 1987). Discover, p. 63.
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Schlitz, M J. and Honorton, C. (1992). ESP and creativity in an exceptional population. Journal of the
American Society for Psychical Research, 86. 2, 83-98.
Schlitz, M. J. and LaBerge, S. (1994). Autonomic Detection of remote observation: Two Conceptual
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Visser, M. (1989). Physical Review D, 39. No. 10.
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APPENDIX A
:
Autonomic Detection of Remote Observation:
Two Conceptual Replications
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AUTONOMIC DETECTION OF REMOTE OBSERVATION:
Two Conceptual Replications1
Marilyn J. Schlitz
Cognitive Sciences Laboratory,
Science Applications International Corporation
and
Stephen LaBerge
The Lucidity Institute
ABSTRACT: Two experiments were conducted to measure the extent to which
people are able to unconsciously detect another person staring at them from a
distance. A closed-circuit television set-up was employed in which a video
camera was focused on the experimental volunteer (Observee) while a person
in another room (Observer) concentrated on the image of the distant person as
displayed on a color monitor; this procedure was used to preclude any
conventional sensory contact between the two people. During the
experimental session, the Observee's galvanic skin responses were monitored.
An automated and computerized system was programmed to record and
average the physiological responses of the Observee during 32 30-second
monitoring periods. A random sequence was used to schedule 16 periods of
remote observation and 16 control periods when no observation efforts were
attempted. A within-subjects evaluation was made for each experimental
session with a comparison between the mean amount of autonomic nervous
system activity during the experimental and control conditions. Twenty four
sessions were conducted in each of two experiments. As predicted, both
experiments yielded significantly more autonomic activity during the remote
observation periods as compared to control periods (Experiment 1: t=1.878,
p <. 036, 1-t, es =. 36; Experiment 2: t=2.360, p <. 014, 1-t, es =. 44). As preplanned,
the two experiments were combined to increase statistical power, yielding a
significant t-value of 2.652 (p <. 005, 1-t, es =. 36).
1 The authors wish to acknowledge the technical support, design contributions, and general
encouragement of William Braud and the staff of the Cognitive Sciences Laboratory. For
editorial assistance, we appreciate the useful suggestions offered by Rick Berger and Christian
de Quincey. Additional support was provided by the Institute of Noetic Sciences.
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INTRODUCTION
The past few decades have witnessed an increasing interest in the
possibility of direct mental influences on living systems. A diverse range of
experiments have been conducted by researchers within the United States,
Canada, and Europe (for reviews, see Benor, 1990; Dossey, 1993; May and
Vilenskaya, 1994; Solfvin, 1984). In a typical experiment, some physiological
activity or other selected behavior is monitored in the context of a formal
laboratory experiment. Efforts are made by experimental participants to
influence a distant biological target system with a comparison between
experimental conditions and non-influence or control conditions. Target
systems for these experiments have included micro-organisms, plants,
. , animals, and human physiology or motor activity (Schlitz, 1983, 1994).
Based on this database, there is compelling evidence to support the
hypothesis that people are able to use intentionality to bring about changes in
distant target systems under conditions that preclude conventional sensory or
motor exchange. At the least, the findings are intriguing and worthy of
further research; at the best, the data have profound scientific, social, and
philosophical implications.
One promising area of research involves the influence of human
autonomic nervous system activity by a distant person. Braud and Schlitz
(1992) reported statistically significant differences across a series of 13
experiments in which periods of intentionality to affect the physiology of a
distant person were interspersed with counter-balanced control periods. This
research led to the development of a protocol designed to measure the degree
to which people are able to unconsciously detect someone observing them
from a distance.
Many people have had the experience of being stared at from a distance,
only to turn around and discover a pair of eyes gazing upon them. Indeed,
survey data support the widespread distribution of these experiences. As early
as 1913, J.E. Coover reported that 68-86% of respondents in California had this
type of experience on at least one occasion. A survey of the Australian
population reported that 74% of the respondents had such an experience
(Williams 1983), 85% within a student population at Washington University
in St. Louis, (Thalbourne and Evans, 1992) 94% of those surveyed in San
Antonio, Texas (Braud, Shafer, and Andrews 1990), and 80% of those
informally surveyed in Europe and America (Sheldrake 1994).
Several attempts have been made to explore these claims within a
laboratory setting. A review of this literature was reported by Braud, et al.
(1990), who identified four studies. The first was conducted by E.B. Titchener,
a Cornell University psychologist during the late 1800's. While a brief article
on the work reported negative results, he did not provide details of his study.
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!
In a slightly later study, Coover (1913) conducted a study on remote staring in
his initial work as the Thomas Welton Stanford Psychical Research Fellow in
the Psychology Department of Stanford University. Each of 10 subjects made
100 guesses as to whether or not they were being stared at by an experimenter
seated behind them in the same room. A random schedule of remote
observation (RO) and non-observation periods was determined by the rolling
of a die. Each observation period was of a 15-20 second duration over a several
hour series of sittings spanning a period of weeks. Having obtained chance
results, Coover interpreted his findings as support for the belief that staring
detection was empirically groundless.
A second study was carried out in 1959 by J.J. Poortman (1959) of Leyden
University in the Netherlands. In this study, the two people were separated in
two rooms but still within sensory range. The experiment spanned a 13-
month period. The remote/non-remote observation intervals were of 2-5
minute duration based on a random sequence determined by card shuffling.
This resulted in a 59.55% accuracy rate (p =. 04 1-t).
A better controlled experiment than the previous two was reported by
Donald Peterson (1978), a graduate student at the University of Edinburgh.
Following two informal pilot studies, the investigator made use of a
procedure in which the subjects were positioned in separate, adjacent closed
cubicles. One-way mirrors and special lighting provided visual perception in
one direction and button pushes were used to measure the subject's
perception of RO/non-RO periods. In 36 experimental sessions, each of six
minute duration, there was a significant effect (p =. 012, 2-t).
This experimental design was further improved by Linda Williams
(1983), a student in the Psychology Department of the University of Adelaide
(South Australia). Subjects were positioned in rooms at a 60 foot distance and
were monitored via a closed-circuit video camera/monitor arrangement.
Through the use of carefully controlled randomization procedures, the author
reported significant RO detection guesses (p =. 04, 1-t).
Based on the four experimental studies, Braud, et al (1990) concluded
that there is suggestive evidence to support the hypothesis that people can
consciously discriminate periods of RO from non-RO under conditions that
controlled for subtle sensory cues. The effect size in these studies was not
particularly strong, however. This, according to Braud and his colleagues, was
due to the fact that "the testing method used in these studies was not the most
appropriate one" (p. 17). In particular, the authors argued that the use of
conscious guessing might be less relevant to everyday life experiences, in
which RO detection takes the form of bodily sensations and spontaneous
behavioral changes. For example, people frequently report the prickling of
neck hairs or the tingling of the skin.
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With these considerations in mind, Braud, et al (1990) designed an
experimental procedure based on the hypothesis that remote observation may
be detected at the level of sympathetic autonomic nervous system activity. In
a series of three experiments (Braud, Shafer, and Andrews 1990, 1992), a person
stared at a distant subject through the use of a closed-circuit television system
while the autonomic nervous system activity of the subject was being
monitored via chart recorder and computer. The experimental design, like
previous studies involving remote mental influences on human physiology
(e.g., Braud and Schlitz 1989, 1992; Schlitz and Braud, 1986) allowed a within-
subjects evaluation of RO versus non-RO (control) periods. The researchers
reported that the electrodermal properties of receivers correlated significantly
with the intense attention of the isolated and remote experimenter (i.e.,
p=0.009, effect size per session=0.59). Results were bi-directional, depending on
the attitude of the Observer.
In addition to the main effects, Braud et al (1992) reported a positive
correlational trend between social avoidance and the degree of change in the
subject's electrodermal activity. This was measured by administering the
Social Avoidance and Distress (SAD) scale (see below). Increasing degrees of
social avoidance/distress/anxiety were also found to positively correlate with
introversion.
The present experiments were designed as conceptual replications of the
work by Braud, Shafer, and Andrews. Further, we extended previous studies
of remote influence on autonomic nervous system activity by Braud and
Schlitz (1989, 1992). Two formal predictions were made. First, we anticipated
a significant difference in the mean rate of autonomic activity in experimental
compared with control conditions across subjects. Second, we predicted the
direction of the effect by instructing the remote Observers to activate the
distant person. As such, we predicted an increase in autonomic activity
during remote observation as compared with control conditions.
In addition to the primary hypotheses, we anticipated a significant
correlation between social avoidance and the remote observation effect. On an
exploratory basis, we also examined the social relationship between Remote
Observers and Observees; this included the interaction of gender and cross-
gender pairs.
METHODS
Apparatus
The equipment utilized in this research included silver/silver chloride
palmar electrodes, a skin-conductance amplifier, an analog-to digital converter
interfaced with an IBM microcomputer, a SUN computer with modem, and a
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closed circuit television, that included a color video camera, two VCR's, two
video monitors, and a tripod to hold the video camera. The camera's radio
frequency output was boosted by a 10 dB amplifier then conveyed via shielded
cable to the color monitor in the Remote Observer's room.
Assessments
.
During Experiment 1, each experimental participant completed four
forms/assessments. The first was a consent form. The second was used in
preliminary screening and consisted of general biographical information as
well as a health condition assessment. Third was a psychological inventory
measuring introversion/extroversion through the use of the NEO Personality
. Inventory (Costa & McRae 1985). This instrument measures six facets of
extroversion, including (1) Warmth, (2) Gregariousness; (3) Assertiveness; (4)
Activity; (5) Excitement Seeking; (6) Positive Emotions. The fourth
assessment was the Social Avoidance and Distress scale (SAD), which
measures social-evaluative anxiety (the experience of distress, discomfort, fear,
and anxiety in social situations) and deliberate avoidance of social situations.
This self-report scale emphasizes subjective experience, and it excludes
physiological signs as well as times related to impaired performance. In
Experiment 2, the NEO Personality Inventory was not used, due to the fact that
participants generally disliked the assessment based on redundancy of
questions and length of time needed to complete the form.
Subjects
Each of the two experiments involved 24 trials. In Experiment 1, this
consisted of one person per trial as the experimental "target" or "Observee"
and 4 remote "Observers," each working with different target persons during 6
sessions. In Experiment 2, 16 subjects participated, with 5 subjects contributing
two or three sessions each. This was done on the basis of the expressed
interest and availability of some volunteers. Under the null hypothesis, this
repeated use of participants does not violate statistical assumptions about the
remote observation effect (Utts, n.d). Further, no claims are made about the
generalizability of the effect in the general population, since all participants
were self-selected on the basis of their interest in the study or their
relationship to the experimenters.
Volunteers were recruited by MJS through notices that were handed out
or posted in the greater San Francisco Bay area, as a result of lectures at
neighboring universities and professional societies, as well as through
personal contacts. Observers were drawn from the subject pools of the
Cognitive Sciences Laboratory and from the same community as used for
recruiting Observees. The age of all participants ranged from 16 to 60. They
were in good health based on the health assessment.
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Experimental Procedure
The basic experimental design was the same for both experiments;
exceptions to this are outlined following the general description. Subjects
were greeted by the experimenter in the Cognitive Sciences Laboratory at
Science Applications International Corporation. They were treated in a warm
and friendly way. Following a brief "get acquainted" period, the experiment
was explained to them. They were encouraged to ask any questions and to
understand the nature of the study. They were introduced to the "Observer"
with whom they would be working and were told that the "Observer" would
try to get their attention or "wake them up" during randomly selected periods.
Efforts were made during this period to ascertain the types of images or
thoughts that might be useful to the Observer in order to startle or excite the
Observees. Hence, the participants were aware of the hypothesized direction
of the effect, although they were blind as to the order, number and duration of
the sampling periods. This differed from the Braud, et. al studies during
which no direction of effect was hypothesized and Observers were instructed
to simply look at the distant person's image -- rather than trying to influence
the person directly. Rather, the goal of influencing the distant person in a pre
specified direction was based on previous research on remote mental
influences reported by Braud and Schlitz (1989).
Three rooms were used for the experiment (see Figure 1). During an
experimental session, each volunteer was taken to an experimental room,
where they were seated in a chair and the skin electrodes attached to the palm
of their non-dominant hand. As was the case in the Braud, et al studies, they
were asked to complete the experimental forms with their dominant hand,
keeping their non-dominant hand as still as possible. A video tape called
Illuminations, which provides amorphous colors accompanied by a musical
sound track, was played for the volunteer on the VCR and headphones in the
experimental room. The presentation timing of this video was held constant
throughout the experiment. This VCR was not in any way connected to the
experimental equipment used to measure the remote observation effect. The
Observee was told that the video camera would be on throughout the session,
but that the remote Observer would be watching them through the monitor in
the distant room only at certain randomly determined times. The Observee
was asked not to try to guess consciously when those periods (of which the
Observee was kept "blind") might be occurring, and was told that we were
exploring whether unconscious physiological reactions might be associated
with RO.
The experimenter (MJS) left the subject alone in the experimental room
and moved to the computer, which was set up in the adjacent control room.
The experimenter checked the electrode conductance. Following this, she
returned to the Experimental Room, started the Illuminations videotape, and
closed the door. The audio track on the video controlled for the possible
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influence of extraneous sounds that might influence the Observee. She passed
through the computer room, crossed the hallway, and entered the Observer's
room, advising the Observer that the session was about to begin and wished
the Observer luck, and reminded them to activate the distant person when
their image appeared on the experimental monitor. She then closed the
Observer's Room door and returned to the Computer Room.
At this point, the experimenter started the microcomputer that
controlled the session events, including timing of the physiological sampling
periods and recording of data during 32 30-second periods. As such, the
experimenter was completely blind as to the sampling periods during any
interactions with the participants. Each of the 16 recording periods during the
, experimental (RO) conditions of the experiment was signaled to the remote
Observer when the distant person's image appeared on the monitor in the
Observer's Room. During these periods, the Observer stared intently at the
television image throughout the 30-second recording period. During control
periods, the Observer read a book or otherwise tried to shift their attention
from the distant person.
The Remote Observer received no feedback during the session about the
Observee's physiological activity. The equipment sampled the Observee's
spontaneous phasic skin conductance responses (SCR) once a second for the
30 seconds of a recording period. A random pause of 0 to 5 seconds was
inserted in order to eliminate potential artifacts due to possible guessing of the
experimental sequences and to rule out possible cycles that might occur in the
Observee's physiology. The experimental sampling then continued with the
next block. The subjects were randomly assigned to one of two experimental
sequences that were counter-balanced for time effects across the experiment.
The randomization sequence was generated by the second author (SB) through
the use of a random number generator. These consisted of blocks of four
conditions: control, observation, observation, control or observation, control,
control, observation. These sequences were randomized in blocks of 6, with
equal numbers of the two conditions across the experiment. This was done to
assure a balance of two conditions and to control for any temporal drift in the
autonomic activity of the participant. Digitized data were stored on disk for
later analysis and copied over to the SUN system for backup security and
transport via modem to the second author. The mean value of skin
conductance activity for each 30-second period was used in the analyses.
RESULTS
For each experimental session, a total score was calculated for all 32
recording periods (16 observation and 16 control). A chi-square goodness of fit
test indicated that the scores of these sessions did not differ significantly from
normality; therefore, parametric statistics were used in their evaluation. A
single mean t-test was calculated with 23 degrees of freedom for each of the
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two experiments. In Experiment One, the obtained t-value was 1.878, p <. 036
(1-t), es =. 36. In Experiment Two, the obtained t value was 2.360, p <. 014 (1-t),
es =. 44. As a pre-planned analysis, the combined results of the two
experiments were combined, yielding a significant t-value of 2.652, p <. 005 (1-t),
es =. 36, with 47 degrees of freedom. These results supported our two primary
hypotheses, providing significant differences in the autonomic activity of
Observees during RO and non-RO conditions in the direction of autonomic
nervous system activation.
Secondary analyses were computed for the psychological data collected
on the basis of the NEO and SAD assessments for experiment 1 and on the
SAD assessment for experiment 2. Linear correlation coefficients (Pearson r's)
, were calculated but no significant relationships were found. To assess the
ROE-SAD relationship, Pearson r's were computed for the percent
electrodermal activity occurring during the RO versus the SAD scores. Again,
no significant relationship was found.
In the first experiment, it was noted that there was a relationship
between the gender of "Observer" and of the "Observee" in the remote
observation experiment. As such, it was decided to analyze this sex pair
relationship across the two experiments. This was done through the use of a
2x2 ANOVA (see Figure 2). Results yielded a significant interaction across sex
pairs (p <. 01, 2-t). Opposite sex pairs showed a larger experimental effect than
same sex pairs.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES
Various alternative hypotheses to remote observation may be
considered to account for the obtained results. These are described below, as
well as the rationale for discounting each of them.
(1) The results are due to internal rhythms that may have influenced the
Observee's autonomic nervous system activity. This potential artifact has
been ruled out by utilizing a random and counter-balanced schedule of
experimental and control periods.
(2) The results are due to sensory cues or other uncontrolled external stimuli.
Based on the experimental design, this alternative hypothesis can be rejected.
There were no known or obvious factors that could have influenced the
Observee based on the random schedule of experimental and control periods.
(3) The results are due to chance correspondences between the Observer's
observations and the Observee's physiological responses. The use of
conventional statistical techniques, as well as the existence of effect sizes in the
predicted direction, minimize the likelihood of coincidence. Of course, such a
cooincidence is expected to occur once in 200 experiments, according to our
statistics.
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(4) The results are due to recording errors or motivated misreadings of the
data. The data were recorded through the use of an automated procedure that
eliminated human error in data recording.
(5) Observees knew the target sequence and so manipulated their physiology
to conform to the experimenter's expectations. The use of a random sequence
that was accessed after all pre-experimental interactions with the Observee
ruled out this potential artifact.
(6) The results are due to arbitrary selection of data. The number of trials and
subjects was specified in advance and the reported analyses include all
' / recorded data that fell within the experimental protocol.
CONCLUSIONS
This research provides an independent conceptual replication of the
remote observation experiments conducted by Braud, et. al, under conditions
that rule out conventional sensory exchange between experimental
participants. The work builds upon an increasing data base suggesting that
people are able to interact with one another at non-sensory levels, including
the mental influence of one person upon another person's physiology (e.g.,
Braud and Schlitz 1989; May and Vilenskaya, 1994).
As is often the case in research, the findings raise more questions than
answers. More research is needed to better understand the mechanisms at
play in this work. For example, a larger study designed to systematically
manipulate the direction of the effect would be useful. Another promising
area of research would address the possible role of influence as compared with
information acquisition in an ostensible information exchange process.
Following the work of May, Radin, Hubbard, Humphrey, and Utts (1986), this
leads us to ask whether the results can be accounted for by a distant influence
on the part of the Observer or to a passive responsiveness on the part of the
Observee. Lastly, more research is needed to assess the degree to which
Remote Observation effects can be limited, blocked or shielded. Such questions
are essential to the development of a truly progressive research program
(Lakatos, 1978).
This work, in the context of previous research by independent
researchers, has significant implications for our understanding of human
communication processes and for a reevaluation of a worldview in which
humans are seen as isolated beings. Furthermore, the results suggest the need
for a broader approach to human consciousness than that held by the
conventional, reductionistic, scientific paradigm (Harman, 1991).
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REFERENCES
Benor, Daniel. 1990 (September). Survey of Spiritual Healing Research,
Complementary Medical Research, 4 (1): 9-33.
Braud, W. and Schlitz, M. 1989. A Methodology for the Objective Study of
Transpersonal Imagery, Journal of Scientific Exploration, 3: 43-63.
Braud, W. and Schlitz, M. 1992. Consciousness Interactions with Remote
Biological Systems: Anomalous Intentionality Effects. Subtle Energies, 2: 1-46.
/ Braud, W., Shafer, D., and Andrews, S. 1990. Electrodermal correlates of
remote attention: Autonomic reactions to an unseen gaze. Paper presented to
the 33rd Annual Convention of the Parapsychological Association, Chevy
Chase, Maryland.
Braud, W., Shafer, D., and Andrews, S. 1992. Further studies of autonomic
detection of remote staring: Replications, new control procedures, and
personality correlates. Paper presented to the 35th Annual Convention of the
Parapsychological Association (Las Vegas, Nevada).
Coover, J.E. 1913. The feeling of being stared at. American Journal of
Psychology, 24: 57-575.
Costa, P.T. and McRae, R. 1985. The NEO Personality Inventory Manual.
Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
Dossey, Larry. 1993. Healing Words. The Power of Prayer and the Practice of
Medicine. San Francisco: Harper.
Harman, Willis. 1991. A Re-examination of the Metaphysical Foundations of
Modern Science. Sausalito: Institute of Noetic Sciences.
Lakatos, I. 1978. The Methodology of Scientific Research Programs.
Cambridge: Cambridge University.
May, E., Radin, D., Hubbard, S., Humphrey, B., and Utts, J. 1986. Psi
Experiments with Random Number Generators: An Informational Model.
Research in Parapsychology, 1985. Scarecrow Press.
May, Edwin and Vilenskaya, Larissa. 1994. Some Aspects of Parapsychological
Research in the Former Soviet Union. Subtle Energies, 3: 1-24.
Peterson, D.M. 1978. Through the looking-glass: An investigation of the
faculty of extra-sensory detection of being stared at. Unpublished M.A. thesis,
University of Edinburgh, Scotland.
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Schlitz, Marilyn. 1983. The Potential Application of Psi in Healing. Research
in Parapsychology, 1982. Edited by W. Roll, J. Beloff, and R. White. Metuchen,
N.J .: Scarecrow, 266-268.
Schlitz, Marilyn. 1994. Psychokinesis on Biological Systems. Fact Sheet.
Society for Psychical Research. London.
Schlitz, Marilyn and Stephen Braud. 1986. Reiki Plus Natural Healing: An
Ethnographic and Experimental Study. Psi Research, 4: 39-49.
Sheldrake, Rupert. 1994. The Seven Experiments that Could Change the
World. London: Fourth Estate.
Solfvin, Jerry. 1984. Mental Healing in Stanley Krippner, ed., Advances in
Parapsychology, Volume 4. Jefferson, N.C .: McFarland and Company.
Thalborne, M. and Evans, L. 1992. Attitudes and beliefs about, and reactions
to, staring and being stared at. Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, 58:
380-385.
Titchener, E.B. 1898. The feeling of being stared at. Science, 8: 895-897.
Watson, D. and Friend, R. 1969. Measurement of social-evaluative anxiety.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33: 448-457.
Utts, Jessica. n.d. personal communication.
Williams, L. 1983. Minimal cue perception of the regard of others. The feeling
of being stared at. Paper presented to the 10th Annual Conference of the
Southeastern Regional Parapsychological Association, West Georgia College,
Carrollton, GA.
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Sender
6.2 m
0
12.2 m
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1
2.0 m
t
Receiver
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2.0 m
Computer
Figure 1: Floor Plan for Remote Observation Experiment
Observee-Observer Distance = 13.7 m.
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Cell Mean
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.03
.025
.02
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1.
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1E-2
5E-3
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F
Cell
Figure 2: Interaction line plot for gender pairings (opposite sex and same
sex) and skin conductance activity
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Phenomenological Research and Analysis: Final Report
APPENDIX B
Target and Sender Dependencies in
Anomalous Cognition Experiments
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Target and Sender Dependencies
in
Anomalous Cognition Experiments
by
Nevin D. Lantz, Ph.D
Wanda L. W. Luke
and
Edwin C. May, Ph.D.
Science Applications International Corporation
Cognitive Sciences Laboratory
Menlo Park, CA
Abstract
The ganzfeld experiments as summarized by Bem and Honorton (1994) suggest that using dynamic tar-
gets produces stronger results than using static ones. Bem and Honorton, however, only analyzed ganz-
feld studies that included the use of a sender. Since it is known that a sender is not a necessary require-
ment in forced-choice trials (Honorton, 1975), we designed and carried out a study to see if a sender is
required in non-ganzfeld, free-response trials. In the first of two experiments, five experienced receiv-
ers participated in 40 trials each, 10 in each condition of a 2 ×2 design to explore sender and target type.
We observed significant effects for static targets (i.e., exact sum-of-rank probability of p < 0.0073, ef-
fect size = 0.248, n=100), chance results for dynamic targets (i.e., p ≤ 0.500, effect size = 0.000, n =
100), and no interaction effects between sender and target-type conditions. One receiver slightly fa-
vored the no sender condition (F(1,36) = 4.43, p < 0.04), while another slightly favored static targets
(F(1,36) = 5.47, p < 0.04). We speculate that these surprising results (i.e., favoring static over dynamic
targets) arose, in part, because of the difference between a topically unbounded dynamic target pool
and a topically restrictive static pool. In a second experiment, we redesigned the dynamic pool to match
more closely the properties of the static pool. Four of the receivers from the first study participated in at
least 20 trials each, 10 in each target-type condition. No senders were used throughout this experiment.
We observed a significant increase in anomalous cognition for the new dynamic targets (X2 = 9.942, df
= 1, p ≤ 1.6x10-3), and an increase in anomalous cognition for the static targets (X2 = 3.158, df = 1, p
<0.075). We conclude that a sender is not a necessary requirement for free-response anomalous cogni-
tion. A rank-order analysis showed no target-type dependencies in the second study (X2 = 0, df = 1, p <
0.5), but a rating analysis revealed some difference favoring dynamic targets (t = 1.32, df = 68, p ≤
0.096) for the significant receivers. Based on an analysis by May, Spottiswoode, and James (1994b), we
believe a fundamental argument suggests that in free-response anomalous cognition experiments, dy-
namic targets should be better than static ones.
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Introduction
The ganzfeld database has received considerable attention since Bem and Honorton's (1994) publica-
tion. They report a significant difference between static and dynamic targets, although they do not re-
port significant hitting with static targets. " None of the 355 ganzfeld trials analyzed by Bem and Honor-
ton were done in a clairvoyant mode-all of these trials used senders.
These data inspired two questions:
(1) Is a sender a necessary or sufficient participant in the process?
(2) Is target type dependency real?
The answer to the first question is settled for forced-choice. Clairvoyant ESP card studies (Honorton,
1975) show significant hitting-senders are not necessary. But what is the situation for free-response?
As part of a cooperative effort between Psychophysical Research Laboratories and the Cognitive
Sciences Laboratory, we asked Honorton to conduct a meta-analysis of the ganzfeld database to deter-
mine the answer (Honorton, 1992). In that review, Honorton examined the ganzfeld studies that were
published in the English-language parapsychology literature between 1974 and 1991. Besides pub-
lished reports, the meta-analysis also included doctoral theses and abstracts of otherwise unpublished
studies. Honorton found that only 12 of 73 studies reported not using a sender, and their combined
results did not reach statistical significance (Z = 1.31, p < 0.095). The difference was in favor of the
sender protocol (Zdiff = 1.49, p ≤ 0.137).
We agree with Honorton's criticism that the studies do not attempt a differential comparison between
sender and no sender. As a result, none of the studies were blind to the sender condition. In parallel to
the experiments we report here, we asked Honorton to design and conduct such a study. Dr. Robert
Morris and the research group in the Psychology department at the University of Edinburgh have taken
over that task.
This paper reports on two non-ganzfeld experiments that we conducted in 1992 and 1993 to address
sender and the target dependencies.
The 1992 Experiment
We used a 2×2 design to study the effects of sender vs no sender and static vs dynamic target type, on
the quality of anomalous cognition (AC)1. The details of the design, results, and conclusions from the
study are described in this section.
* It may be that this difference will vanish when other factors are accounted for. In private communication with Professor
Jessica Utts, she reports that she did not find a significant difference between target condition when receivers brought
their own sender.
t The Cognitive Sciences Laboratory has adopted the term anomalous mental phenomena instead of the more widely known psi.
Likewise, we use the terms anomalous cognition and anomalous perturbation for ESP and PK, respectively. We have done so
because we believe that these terms are more naturally descriptive of the observables and are neutral in that they do not imply
mechanisms. These new terms will be used throughout this paper.
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Target and Sender Dependencies
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Target-pool Selection
The static targets were 50 of the 100 National Geographic magazine photographs that have been used in
our laboratory for many years. By design these targets had the following characteristics:
. Topic homogeneity. The photographs contained outdoors scenes of settlements (e.g., villages, towns,
cities, etc.), water (e.g., coasts, rivers and streams, waterfalls, etc.), and topographical features (e.g.,
mountains, hills, desserts, etc.).
. Size homogeneity. Target elements are all roughly the same size. That is, there are no size surprises
such as an ant in one photograph and the moon in another.
· Affectivity Homogeneity. As much as possible, the targets include only material which invokes neutral
affectivity.
This set was divided into 10 sets of five photographs that were determined to be visually dissimilar by a
fuzzy set analysis (May, Utts, Humphrey, Luke, Frivold, and Trask, 1990) and fine-tuned by inspection.
For the dynamic targets, we digitized and compressed 30 video clips from a variety of popular movies or
documentaries. With the exception of cartoons and sexually-oriented material, the clips contained
nearly anything. Examples included an indoor motor bike race and a slow panoramic scan of the statues
on Easter island.
The overall intent of these dynamic targets was to control for cognitive surprise, to provide target ele-
ments that are easily sketched, and to mimic the content of the successful ganzfeld dynamic targets.
Receiver, Sender, and Monitor Selection
We chose five experienced receivers that had produced significant AC effect sizes in previous investiga-
tions. The sender for all of the trials was the principal investigator (PI), located in Lititz, Pennsylvania.
All trials were unmonitored.
Protocol
Each of the five receivers contributed 10 trials in each of the conditions shown in Table 1. Although 10
trials seems too few for such a study, we computed that the statistical power within a cell was 80%, given
the "known" historical effect sizes of approximately 0.8 for these receivers.
Table 1.
Experiment Conditions
Target Type
Sender
Static
Yes
Static
No
Dynamic
Yes
Dynamic
No
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Target Preparation
Prior to beginning the study, an experiment coordinator randomly generated a unique, counterbal-
Cand&Get bf 20 static and 20 dynamic targets for each of the five receivers." Within each target type, a
counter-balanced set of sender/no sender conditions was also generated. A copy of each target (i.e.,
either a color photograph or a short clip on video tape) was placed in an envelope and a trial number,
1-40, was written on the outside. Those envelopes containing targets from the no-sender condition
were sealed and those for the sender condition remained unsealed. Each set of 40 targets were pack-
aged separately and shipped to the PI.
Trial Schedule
Two of the five receivers resided in California, and the others resided in Kansas, New York and Virginia.
The experiment was conducted over a five-month period. Individual schedules were developed so as to
cause as little inconvenience to the receiver's daily routine as possible. Not more than one trial per day
or three trials per week were conducted.
Session Sequence
For each trial and for each receiver:
(1) The PI selected the appropriately numbered envelope from the box of targets for the receiver.
(2) In the sender condition, he looked at the selected target for 15 minutes and attempted to "trans-
mit" it to the intended receiver during a prearranged trial period.
(3) In the no-sender condition for the static targets, he placed the sealed envelope on his uncluttered
desk for the 15 minute trial period.
(4) In the no-sender condition for the dynamic targets, he played the video repeatedly for 15 minutes
without sound, and with the TV monitor located in an unoccupied room.
(5) At the conclusion of the 15-minute trial period, and after the receipt of the receiver's response by
FAX, he sent a copy of the target material (i.e., either a photograph or video tape) to the receiver by
mail.
During each trial:
(1) At the prearranged time, the receiver withdrew to a quiet room in his or her home and sat at a desk.
(2) For a period lasting up to 15 minutes, the receiver wrote and drew his or her impressions of the
intended target material.
(3) At the end of the trial, she/he sent a copy of the response to the PI by FAX machine.
(4) By return mail, she/he obtained a copy of the target as feedback for the trial. The target copy and
original response were subsequently sent to the experiment coordinator in Menlo Park, California.
We did not provide specific instructions beyond logistical information to the receivers, because they
were all experienced at this type of task. They were, however, knowledgeable about the general charac-
teristics of the two target pools.
When the experiment coordinator received the receiver's response, all identifying information (i.e.
name, date, and time of trial) was removed. Periodically during the course of the experiment, the ex-
* All randomizations were done with a standard computer algorithm, which is based on a shift-register algorithm by Kendell and
has been shown to meet the general criteria for "randomness" (Lewis, 1975).
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periment coordinator provided an analyst, who was blind to the target choice, with a set of responses
and associated target packs for analysis.
CAMary'sTs
We conducted two different analyses in this study:
(1) Our standard 1-of-5 rank-order technique to construct effect sizes and p-values.
(2) An analysis of variance (ANOVA) to address the 2×2 questions.
Rank-Order
For each trial, there was a single response and its associated target pack (i.e., either static or dynamic).
An analyst, who was blind to the condition and target for the trial, was asked to rank-order five targets
(i.e., the intended target and four decoys) within the given pack. This was a forced ranking, so regard-
less of the quality of match between the response and targets, he/she had to assign a first place match, a
second place match, and so on for each of the five targets. The output from this part of the analysis was a
rank-order number (i.e., one to five, one corresponding to a first place match) for the correct target.
For each receiver, target type, and condition, there were 10 such rank-order numbers which constituted
a block of data. A rank-order effect size was computed for a block as:
Ro - Ri.j
EL = ROH !
12
where Rij is the average rank for target type i and sender condition j, and Ro is the expected average
rank, which for this study is equal to three for all cases. N is the number of possible ranks and is equal to
five throughout this study. The effect size reduces to:
EL) = 3- RJ
Analysis of Variance
A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was computed for each receiver. The two primary variables
were target type and sender condition (i.e., ANOVA main effects). Each of these variables possessed
the two states shown in Table 1 above.
Hypotheses
The overall null hypothesis was that aj will not be significantly different from zero.
Using an F-test, we hypothesized that the quality of AC does not depend upon a sender regardless of
target type. Similarly, we used an F-test to test the hypothesis that the quality of AC does not depend
upon target type, regardless of the sender condition.
The ANOVA also tests for potential interactions between the target and sender conditions. For exam-
ple, it might be that a sender is required for dynamic targets and not for static ones. We did not hypothe-
size with regard to interactions.
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Effect Size Results
CP FREteteivers completed 40 trials each. Table 2 shows the effect sizes computed for the 10 trials in each
cell. The underlined effect sizes indicate 1-tailed significant results. Receiver 009 showed significant
evidence for AC in the static target, no-sender condition (p ≤ 0.02); receiver 372 in the static target,
sender condition; and receiver 518 in the static target, no-sender condition (p ≤0.05). Combined, the
static, no-sender condition was significant (p ≤0.02)
Table 2.
Effect Sizes
Receiver
Sender
Static
No Sender
Static
Sender
Dynamic
No Sender
Dynamic
009
-0.071
0.636
-0.141
0.141
131
-0.071
-0.071
0.212
0.495
372
0.707
0.141
-0.354
-0.283
389
0.141
0.212
0.000
0.000
518
-0.088
0.530
-0.495
0.283
Totals
0.198
0.297
-0.028
0.028
ANOVA Results
Table 3 shows the results of an ANOVA on these data. Since there were 10 trials within each cell, the
degrees of freedom are the same for all receivers and, therefore, are only shown in the column headings.
Two receivers show significant main effects. Receiver 372 showed a tendency to favor static over dy-
namic targets (i.e.p < 0.03), and receiver 518 showed a tendency to favor no sender conditions (i.e., p <
0.04). Notice the underlined values in Table 3-for these receivers the ANOVA hypothesis that the data
were drawn from the same distribution is rejected, and there were no significant interactions between
target type and sender condition.
Table 3.
ANOVA Results
Sender Condition
Target Type
Interaction
Receiver
F(1,36)
P-Value
F(1,36)
P-Value
F(1,36)
P-Value
009
0.38
0.54
0.68
0.42
2.08
0.16
131
0.18
0.67
1.66
0.21
0.18
0.67
372
1.01
0.32
5.47
0.03
0.61
0.44
389
0.01
0.91
0.33
0.57
0.01
0.91
518
4.43
0.04
0.97
0.33
0.06
0.81
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CPYRGHT
Combining results across receivers, the ANOVA showed no significant main effect for the sender condi-
tion. The main effect for target type, while not significant, was strongly in favor of the static targets
(F(1,196) = 2.91, p ≤ 0.09). We found no significant interactions for the combined data (F(1,196) =
0.02, p ≤ 0.89).
Since there were no significant interactions, we combined the data for static targets regardless of the
sender condition (i.e., 100 trials). The sum-of-ranks was 265 (i.e., exact sum-of-rank probability of p ≤
0.007, effect size = 0.248). The total sum-of-ranks for the dynamic targets was 300 (i.e., p ≤ 0.50, effect
size = 0.000). From these data, we concluded that static targets may be better than dynamic targets.
Discussion and Hypothesis Formulation
Static targets being better than dynamic ones is surprising not only because it fails to support the ganz-
feld result, but also because it actually suggests the opposite. There are a number of possible contribut-
ing factors for this outcome. They include statistical artifacts, idiosyncrasies of our receivers compared
to the ganzfeld participants, and procedural differences. Another possibility may be that rank-order
statistics were used, as they were in the ganzfeld. We find absolute measures of AC are better than
relative measures in process-oriented research, and since the target-type inference was based on rela-
tive measures, perhaps this accounts for some of the result. Please see an expanded discussion of this
point in the 1993 experiment below.
We propose, however, a different explanation: the fundamental differences between the target pools in
this experiment are, in themselves, a source of noise and confound the interpretation.
To understand this noise source, we must first assume that AC data are weak and difficult to recognize.
Target pools which contain a large number of differentiable cognitive elements, in conjunction with re-
ceivers who believe that this is the case, are a source of noise. Receivers are encouraged to report any
imagined impressions, since those impressions might be part of the target. Since AC is assumed to be
weak, most of what is generated is more from the receiver's imagination than from the signal. This noise
is generated from an active imagination coupled with an agreement not to edit the internal experience.
A full description of these points can be found in May, Spottiswoode, and James (1994a).
The receivers in our experiments have learned the natural limitations of our usual National Geographic
target pool by experience and by instruction. They have become skilled at internal editing and do not
report impressions that they know are absent from the overall target pool, thus there is less incorrect
material in their responses.
We conclude, therefore, that in this experiment, receivers were unable to produce significant evidence
of AC with dynamic targets. They produced, what is for us, significant reduced functioning with static
targets. We speculated that this drop of functioning in both target conditions arose because the proto-
col would not allow the receivers to edit their internal experience. They were told that the dynamic
targets could be virtually anything, and since they were blind to the static-vs-dynamic target condition,
they were unable to edit their imaginations, even for the static targets.
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Based on this speculation, we developed the following hypotheses for our replication study in 1993:
(1) A significant increase of AC will be observed for dynamic targets if the dynamic pool is designed
with a similar set of topics that match the static pool from the 1992 study.
(2) An increase of AC will be observed for static targets because the receivers will be able to edit their
internal experience.
The 1993 Experiment
In this experiment, we included a static vs dynamic target condition to replicate the findings from the
ganzfeld, but dropped the sender condition, since it appeared not to influence the results of our 1992
investigation. All trials were conducted with a monitor but without a sender.
Target Pools
We redesigned both the static and dynamic targets with the constraint that they all must conform to the
topic, size, and affectivity homogeneity of the original static targets. We identified a large number of
videos that could be edited to produce 50 National Geographic-like segments. A single frame from with-
in each video clip, which was characteristic of the entire clip, acted as its static target pool equivalent.
Thus, we improved the target pools from our 1992 experiment in two ways:
(1) The new dynamic pool possessed a reduced number of differerentiable cognitive elements
compared with the dynamic pool we used in 1992.
(2) The content of the dynamic and static pools were nearly identical, by design.
During the experiment, the targets were chosen randomly and were counter-balanced with regard to
static and dynamic target types, within receivers.
All static frames were digitized (i.e., 640x480 pixels) for 24 bits of color information, compressed by
JPEG, and stored on-line for feedback and display purposes. The dynamic targets were digitized at
near real-time rate and stored on three magneto-optical read/write diskettes. The "video" clips could
then be displayed on our full-color, Sun Microsystems computer monitor in real-time.
Receiver, Monitor, and Sender Selection
For the new experiment, we chose four of the five experienced receivers who had participated in our
1992 study. All trials were conducted without a sender and were monitored by the PI, who was blind to
target type and content for each trial.
Protocol
Three receivers contributed 10 trials in each of the two target conditions, and a fourth (i.e., receiver
372) contributed 15 trials in each condition.
Trial Schedule
The experiment was conducted over a seven-month period, and all trials were conducted at our labora-
tory in Menlo Park. One of the four receivers (i.e., Receiver 009) lives locally, but the others traveled to
our facility for one-week visits. All viewers participated in no more than one trial per day.
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Session Sequence
Before the session began, and after the receiver and monitor were sequestered in our AC laboratory, an
assistant, who was otherwise not involved in the experiment, randomly generated a target in accordance
with the target selection criteria (i.e., counter-balanced for type within receivers and randomly within
type).
During the session:
The monitor provided the following tasking statement to the receiver: "There is a scene that needs a
description. Access to that scene is through the word target."
For a period lasting no longer than 15 minutes, the receiver wrote and drew his or her impressions of
the intended target material, with the monitor asking for clarification on specific response elements.
When the monitor and receiver agreed that the data was complete, the monitor halted the session,
copied the response material, and secured the original.
The monitor provided computer-based feedback of the intended target material and emphasized the
points of agreement between the response and target.
We again emphasize that for each trial the monitor and receiver were blind to the target selection.
All four receivers participated in a total of 20 trials with this design. At no time during these trials was
the target material displayed during the AC session. Instead, the intended target, which existed on a
computer disk, was designated by name only. Only during the feedback phase was the intended target
displayed.
We asked receiver 372 to participate in an additional 10 trials that were randomly counter-balanced
between static and dynamic targets. We used an automated version of the above procedure and, during
the session, the target material was silently displayed on a computer monitor in another room. The
session protocol was identical to the one above except for the automatic target generation and display.
For these 10 trials, the monitor initiated an automatic computer program after receiver 372 had entered
the AC laboratory. This program randomly counter-balanced the target type and selected a single tar-
get for the session. Regardless of the type, the program required that a specific optical disk, unlabeled
with regard to content, be mounted and the dynamic version of the selected target was then copied to an
internal hard disk. All static equivalent targets were already resident on the internal hard disk. Once
the transfer was complete, the monitor was instructed to initiate the trial. For the next 60 seconds, the
computer screen remained blank, thus allowing the monitor sufficient time to enter the adjacent AC
laboratory and remain blind to the target choice. At the end of the the 60 seconds, the computer pro-
gram began to continuously display the target regardless of type. The computer program kept track of
all the specific details that were used later during the analysis phase.
Analysis
We conducted two different analyses in this experiment:
(1) Our standard 1-of-5 rank-order technique to construct effect sizes and p-values.
(2) A blind rating from a predetermined rating scale.
Our rank-order procedure was similar to the one we used in our 1992 experiment. The sole difference
was how and when the decoy targets were chosen. In our earlier investigation, the decoys were prede-
=
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termined using fuzzy set analysis and fine tuning. Thus, they existed prior to the start of the experiment.
In this study, the decoys were chosen by computer at the time of analysis, and did not exist during the
actual trials.
Prior to the start of this experiment, we divided our 50 targets into 10 sets of five targets each. Differing
from our earlier approaches, the targets within each pack were as similar as possible. We were able to
identify five broadly different topic categories (e.g., cities near water, ruins, etc.), and we created two
different packs of five targets for each specific category. We made all target pack decisions based on our
experience and subjective assessment.
Decoys were chosen by the computer at analysis time. First, the computer selected the topic set of five
packets from which the actual target was chosen. Then, the computer randomly selected one target
from each of the remaining four target packs for the decoys.
Blind Rating Scale
Rank-order analysis does not usually indicate the absolute quality of the AC. For example, a response
that is a near-perfect description of the target receives a rank of one. But a response which is barely
matchable to the target may also receive a rank of one. Table 4 shows the rating scale that we used to
perform a blind assessment of the quality of the AC responses, regardless of their rank. Even though
ranks correlated with ratings (Spearman's e = - 0.6, df = 78), we feel that rating scales like this poten-
tially reduce an additional source of variance in correlational or comparative studies.
To apply this subjective scale to an AC trial, an analyst begins with a score of seven and determines if the
description for that score is correct. If not, then the analyst tries a score of six and so on. In this way the
scale is traversed from seven to zero until the score-description seems reasonable for the trial.
Table 4.
0-7 Point Assessment Scale
Score
Description
7
Excellent correspondence, including good analytical detail, with essentially no
incorrect information
6
Good correspondence with good analytical information and relatively little
incorrect information.
5
Good correspondence with unambiguous unique matchable elements, but
some incorrect information.
4
Good correspondence with several matchable elements intermixed with
incorrect information.
3
Mixture of correct and incorrect elements, but enough of the former to indicate
receiver has made contact with the site.
2
Some correct elements, but not sufficient to suggest results beyond chance
expectation.
1
Little correspondence.
0
No correspondence.
Figures 1 through 3 (pages 12 through 14), illustrate the application of this scale and show that the quali-
ty of an AC response is not indicated by a first-place ranking. All three examples were given a rank of
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one in a blind analysis from our 1992 study. The response to the waterfall target in Figure 1 included a
number of pages of material about a city and other man-made elements. In all of our analyses, we strict-
ly adhered to the concept that any material a receiver deletes from the the response prior to feedback is
not counted in the analysis. As the receiver deleted the descriptions of man-made elements during the
trial, the response in Figure 1 is considered as complete. This target-response pair received a score of
seven. Figures 2 and 3 show examples of scores of four and one, respectively. In both cases, these re-
sponses were not edited by the receiver.
Hypotheses
The overall null hypothesis was that the effect sizes will not be significantly different from zero. We used
an X2 to test the hypothesis that the quality of AC, as measured by rank-order, does not depend upon
target type.
Data Analysis and Results
The analysis for this study was partially automated. All the trial information was stored in a computer
file and could be read only by the analysis program to guard against inadvertent display. An analyst
initiated the program and selected which receiver to analyze. Since the program kept track of the re-
sults, it instructed the analyst which response to examine for the current trial. If the target for that trial
was dynamic, the program instructed the analyst to insert enough disks, which were unlabeled with re-
gard to content, so that the target and four decoys could be copied to the computer hard disk. If the trial
target was static, this step was unnecessary, as the static targets were already present on the hard disk.
A randomized order of the decoys and the target were presented in tabular form. A mouse click on the
target name would launch either the dynamic or static display of the selected target. By this method, an
analyst could review the entire target pack and rank-order them as usual. The ranks were entered into
an appropriate place on the computer form. The ratings were done at the same time and entered into
the form. Only after the completion of the analysis for this single trial was the data was locked into a file.
The analyst could then select feedback as to the correct answer. The results for individual receivers
were maintained in separate files. Three receivers participated in 10 trials for each target type and a
fourth, 372, participated in 15 trials per target type. Tables 5 shows the average rank, the effect size and
its associated p-value for the static target condition. We see that the combined data is significant and
three of the four receivers produced independently significant results.
Table 5.
Results for Static Targets
Receiver
<Rank>
ES
p-value
9
2.20
0.565
0.037
372
1.87
0.801
9.7×10-4
389
3.10
-0.071
0.589
518
1.90
0.778
7.2×10-3
Totals
2.22
0.550
1.1 ×10-4
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..
TARGET
rocks
water flowing
1) City, buildings seems to be a big leap
from what I am feeling about the target. I'll
restart.
waterfall
2) Troubled by city feeling. Could be that the
uprights are natural rather than man-
made. In which case the city interpretation
is incorrect and I am feeling MESA. I'll
check verticals.
water spray in the air
vertical drop
3) DELETE Lights, structure, structures,
building, and city. We gots a waterfall,
dude.
turbulence
Figure 1. Target and response with a rating of 7.
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1
While focaligular box like an upside-down
sheet cake
1
short
long
same box
-
2
two circular shapes in front, like stepping
stones in a garden
3
dark interior
Figure 2. Target and response with a rating of 4.
1
long hollow tube, like crashing surf on a
beach - "Hawaii Pipeline"
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BEGIN-10:30 AM
puffy balls - almost cotton-like. Cottony
puffy splotches. Movement - whizzing
through these cottony puffs fast. Damp-
ness. A long walkway & metal girders.
BREAK
I keep wanting to say - specifically - air-
fileid landing strip. Flat land. Big airplanes
would land here like naval carriers. Has a
broken white line down the center of strip &
you see it straight on - like you would be
coming in for a landing.
Figure 3. Target and response with a rating of 1.
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Rank-order
We observed a strong increase of AC for the static targets in the 1993 trials as compared to that of the
1992 trials (X2 = 3.158, df = 1, p < 0.075). Three of the four receivers had improved results in the 1993
trials as compared to those of 1992. Thus, the second hypothesis (i.e., an increase in AC for static tar-
gets) was supported.
Table 6 shows the same data for the dynamic targets.
Table 6.
Results for Dynamic Targets
Receiver
<Rank>
ES
p-value
9
1.70
0.919
1.8×10-3
372
1.93
0.754
1.8×10-3
389
3.00
0.000
0.500
518
2.40
0.424
0.091
Totals
2.22
0.550
1.1 ×10-4
Using the rank-order statistics above, we saw no difference between static and dynamic targets in this
study. The first hypothesis was confirmed: we observed a significant increase of AC with dynamic tar-
gets in 1993 from that of 1992 (X2 = 9.942, df = 1, p < 1.6 x 10-3).
.
We then examined the question of static vs dynamic targets with regard to our blind rating system. Fig-
ure 4 shows the relative density for the static vs dynamic targets for the three significant receivers only.
The mean and standard deviation for the static and dynamic targets was 3.31±1.73 and 3.91-2.06, re-
spectively (t = 1.32, df = 68, p < 0.096). Including all receivers the means and standard deviations were
3.22-187 and 3.51-2.06, respectively (t = 0.690, df = 88, p ≤ 0.246).
0.25
0.20
Relative Density
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
O
2
4
6
8
Blind Rating Score 0 - > 7
Figure 4. Static (dotted) vs Dynamic Ratings for Three Significant Receivers
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It is difficult to interpret this analysis. If we claim that dynamic targets should be more readily sensed by
AC, then we are entitled to examine only the significant receivers. While not overtly so, the trend sup-
ports that assertion. Ratings, however, can be biased because of content. We could argue that this dif-
ference is simply due to that fact that there is more content in the dynamic targets than in the static ones.
There are two arguments against this assertion, however. In this experiment, the content of the dynam-
ic targets was carefully chosen to match that of the static targets. In addition, our rating scale is sensitive
to both incorrect and correct information. It seems unlikely, therefore, that the increase in scoring can
be accounted for by content bias.
We see little evidence for a target type dependency when we include all receivers, or when we examine
the overall difference, using the rank-order data (X2 = 0, df = 1, p ≤ 0.5).
General Discussion and Conclusions
In our first experiment, we found that AC statistics with static targets were better than with dynamic
ones. We hypothesized that this difference resulted from a combination of the target pool design and
the receivers' expectations. Following this idea, May, Spottiswoode, and James (1994a) define target
pool bandwidth as the number of differentiable cognitive elements in a target pool. They suggest that a
target pool, such as our original static pool, which contains enough elements to prevent guessing, while
at the same time allowing for some internal editing of receivers' imagination, is optimal with regard to
the reduction of noise. In the first experiment, the dynamic target pool did not fit this ideal. When we
constructed a better dynamic pool for the second experiment, we observed commensurate increases in
The effect sizes. May, Spottiswoode, and James suggest that their target pool bandwidth concept is test-
able, and it is our hope that these tests will be conducted in the near future.
In the second experiment, even after correcting possible defects in our target pool design, we were un-
able to observe a significant target type dependency. On the other hand, the direction for a replication
is clear. May, Spottiswoode, and James (1994b) suggest that they have identified an intrinsic target
property that correlates with the quality of AC (i.e., gradient of Shannon's entropy). If this is true, then
there might be a fundamental argument that implies that dynamic targets should be better than static
largets, all else being equal. If a dynamic and static target pool were constructed on the basis of the
largest possible gradients of Shannon's entropy, then we would expect a significant improvement of the
HC effect size and result that strongly favors the dynamic targets.
Finally, we comment upon the sender condition. Our results show, as in forced-choice AC, that a sender
is not a requirement. It is reasonable to expect that if the sender condition is not blind, then some de-
pendencies might be observed. Dr. Robert Morris and the research group of the Psychology depart-
ment at the University of Edinburgh are currently conducting a study to answer the necessary and/or
sufficient requirement of a sender.
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References
Bem, D. J. and Honorton, C. (1994). Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of
information transfer. Psychological Bulletin. 115, No. 1, 4-18.
Honorton, C. (1975). Error Some Place! Journal of Communication, 103-116.
Honorton, C. (1992). In May, E. C., Luke, W. L. W., and Lantz, N. D. (1992). "Phenomenalogical
Research and Analysis." Science Applications International Corporation, the Cognitive Sciences
Laboratory Final Report: 6.2 and 6.3.
Lewis, T. G. (1975). Distribution Sampling for Computer Simulation. Lexington, MA: Lexington
Books.
May, E. C., Utts, J. M., Humphrey, B. S., Luke, W. L. W., Frivold, T. J., and Trask, V. V. (1990). Advances
in remote-viewing analysis. Journal of Parapsychology, 54, 193-228.
May, E. C., Spottiswoode, S. J., and James, C. L. (1994a). Managing the target pool bandwidth: Noise
reduction for anomalous cognition experiments. Submitted for publication in the Journal of
Parapsychology.
May, E. C., Spottiswoode, S. J., and James, C. L. (1994b). Shannon entropy as an intrinsic target
property: Toward a reductionist model of anomalous cognition .. Submitted for publication in the
Journal of Parapsychology.
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APPENDIX C
Managing the Target Pool Bandwidth:
Noise Reduction for Anomalous Cognition Experiments
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Managing the Target Pool Bandwidth:
Noise Reduction
for
Anomalous Cognition Experiments
by
Edwin C. May, Ph.D
S. James P. Spottiswoode (Consultant)
and
Christine L. James
Science Applications International Corporation
Cognitive Sciences Laboratory
Menlo Park, CA
Abstract
Lantz, Luke, and May (1994) reported in the first of two studies that experienced receivers from the
Cognitive Sciences Laboratory produced significant evidence for anomalous cognition (AC) of static
targets, but showed little evidence for AC of dynamic targets. This result was surprising-it was directly
opposite to the results that were derived from the ganzfeld database (Bem and Honorton, 1994). In
Lantz, Luke, and May's experiment, the topics of the dynamic targets were virtually unlimited, whereas
the topics for the static targets were constrained in content, size of cognitive elements, and range of
affect. In a second experiment, Lantz, Luke, and May redesigned the target pools to correct this unbal-
ance and observed significant improvement of AC functioning. We incorporate these findings into a
definition of target pool bandwidth and propose that the proper selection of bandwidth will lead to a
reduction of incorrect information in free-response AC.
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Introduction
Effect sizes from forced-choice experiments are much lower than those from free-response studies. For
example, in precognition (Honorton and Ferrari, 1989) and real-time (Honorton, 1975) forced-choice
experiments, the effect size (i.e., Z///n) is 0.02, while in the free-response ganzfeld (Bem and Honor-
ton, 1994), the effect size is 0.159. Even if we consider the ganzfeld response as a "forced-choice"
among four alternatives, the x effect size, which converts 1-in-n into an effective binary choice hitting
rate (Rosenthal and Rubin, 1989 and Rosenthal, 1991), is 0.51230.0004 for card guessing and
0.5854+0.0287 for the ganzfeld (t = 46.2, df = 2 x 106, p = 0). The large t-score is probably due to the
large number of forced-choice trials (i.e., 2x 106). Considering that the mean of the forced-choice ef-
fect size is 2.50 smaller than that of the ganzfeld, however, there is clearly a meaningful difference. One
potential source of noise in forced-choice experiments, particularly when trial-by-trial feedback is giv-
en, is memory of the previous trial and knowledge of the complete set of possibilities. For example,
suppose a receiver (i.e., participant, subject) is asked to guess if a particular card from a normal deck of
playing cards is red or black. Suppose further that there is some putative information coming either
from the card or from the mind of a sender, and that the receiver is a "good" imager (i.e., can easily
picture a brilliant image of a playing card in her/his mind). The receiver's task, then, can be reduced to
simple signal detection. Yet, if anomalous cognition (AC)* is not a robust information transfer mecha-
nism, and it appears that it is not, the "signal" is easily lost among the vibrant internal imagery from the
memory of all alternative playing cards. The resulting effect sizes, therefore, are reduced.
The ganzfeld itself was developed as a somatic-sensory noise reduction procedure (Honorton and
Harper, 1974). Honorton argued that by placing a receiver in a sensory-reduced environment, her/his
reactions to the environment would be sharply reduced, encouraging a commensurate reduction of
noise. Based upon the results of our current work, we argue that a major contributor of noise in any
free-response study is cognitive and arises, in part, because of the target pool design.
One result from the ganzfeld experiments suggests that dynamic targets produce stronger results than
static targets (Bem and Honorton, 1994). Lantz, Luke, and May (1994) attempted to replicate this find-
ing in two lengthy experiments in 1992 and 1993. The first of these explored, in a 2x2 design, the rela-
tionship of sender vs no-sender and static vs dynamic target type on the quality of the AC. Since Lantz,
Luke, and May reported no significant effects or interactions due to the sender condition, we will ignore
that aspect of this first experiment. In the second experiment, they conducted all trials without a sender
and changed the characteristics of the target pool. This paper describes the insights gained from these
two studies which led both to the concept of target pool bandwidth, and to a potential way of reducing
noise in free-response AC.
Summary of the first Anomalous Cognition Experiment - 1992
We begin by summarizing the experiment and pertinent results from a study that was conducted in 1992,
the details of which may be found in Lantz, Luke, and May (1994). In the experiment, a static vs dynam-
ic target condition was included to replicate the findings from the ganzfeld.
-
* The Cognitive Sciences Laboratory has adopted the term anomalous mental phenomena instead of the more widely known psi.
Likewise, we use the terms anomalous cognition and anomalous perturbation for ESP and PK, respectively. We have done so
because we believe that these terms are more naturally descriptive of the observables and are neutral in that they do not imply
mechanisms. These new terms will be used throughout this paper.
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Target Pools - 1992
For the static targets, Lantz, Luke, and May used a subset of 50 of our traditional National Geographic
magazine collection of photographs (May, Utts, Humphrey, Luke, Frivold, and Trask, 1990). These
targets had the following characteristics:
. Topic homogeneity. The photographs contained outdoor scenes of settlements (e.g., villages, towns,
cities, etc.), water (e.g., coasts, rivers and streams, waterfalls, etc.), and topography (e.g., mountains,
hills, desserts, etc.).
. Size homogeneity. Target elements are all roughly the same size. That is, there are no size surprises
such as an ant in one photograph and the moon in another.
. Affectivity homogeneity. As much as possible, the targets included materials which invoke neutral affec-
tivity.
This pool is perhaps better characterized by what it does not contain. There are no people, animals,
transportation devices or situations in which one would find these items-and no emotionally arousing
pictures.
The dynamic targets, on the other hand, followed similar lines to those from the ganzfeld studies.
Lantz, Luke, and May digitized and compressed video clips from a variety of popular movies or docu-
mentaries. With the exception of cartoons and sexually-oriented material, the clips could contain virtu-
ally anything. Examples included an indoor motor bike race and a slow panoramic scan of the statues on
Easter island. Almost all of the characteristics of the static target pool were violated. The only common
characteristic was thematic homogeneity within any given dynamic clip; across targets there were no
restrictions on content.
Data Analysis and Results - 1992
For each response, a single analyst conducted a blind ranking of five targets-the intended one and four
decoys-in the usual way. The expected mean-chance rank was three. Effect sized were computed by:
ES =
(R. - R.)
IN2-1
12
where N is the number of rank possibilities (i.e., five in our case) and R. and R, are the expected and
observed average ranks, respectively. The p-values were computed from Z = ESX Vn, where n is the
number of trials.
Each receiver participated in 20 trials for each target type, regardless of sender condition. Table 1 shows
the average rank, the effect size, and its associated p-value for the static target condition. We see that
the combined data is significant and that two of our most experienced receivers, 9 and 372, produced
independently significant results.
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Table 1.
Results for Static Targets - 1992 Experiment
Receiver
<Rank>
ES
p-value
9
2.40
0.424
0.034
131
3.10
-0.071
0.653
372
2.40
0.424
0.034
389
2.75
0.177
0.240
518
2.60
0.283
0.119
Totals
2.65
0.247
6.8×10-3
Table 2 shows the same data for the dynamic target condition.
Table 2.
Results for Dynamic Targets - 1992 Experiment
Receiver
<Rank>
ES
p-value
9
3.00
0.000
0.500
131
2.50
0.354
0.057
372
3.40
-0.283
0.897
389
3.00
0.000
0.500
518
3.10
-0.071
0.624
Totals
3.00
0.000
0.500
With the possible exception of receiver 131, AC on the dynamic targets failed to show any evidence of
functioning. The difference between these two target conditions favors the static targets (X2 = 3.050, df
= 1, p < 0.081).
Hypothesis Formulation and Discussion - 1992
Static targets being better than dynamic ones is surprising-not only because it fails to support the ganz-
feld result, but also because it suggests the opposite. There are a number of possible contributing fac-
tors for this outcome. They include statistical artifacts, idiosyncrasies of our receivers compared to the
ganzfeld participants, and procedural differences. Another possibility may be that, as in the ganzfeld,
participants used a rank-order technique for judging even though only the first-place matches were
used for the statistic. Since absolute measures of AC are better than relative measures in process-ori-
ented research, and since the target-type inference was based on relative measures, perhaps this ac-
counts for some of the result. A full discussion of these points may be found in Lantz, Luke, and May
(1994).
We propose a different explanation: a fundamental difference between the experiment's dynamic and
static target pools are, in themselves, a source of noise.
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The sources of noise in the forced-choice domain are reasonably understood (i.e., memory in conjunc-
tion with complete knowledge of the target pool elements). A new insight for us was another potential
source of noise in the free-response domain. To understand this noise source, we must first assume that
AC data are weak and difficult to recognize. Target pools which contain a large number of diverse cogni-
tive elements, in conjunction with receivers who believe that this is the case, are a source of noise. Re-
ceivers will tend to report any imagined impressions, since those impressions might be part of the target.
Since AC is assumed to be weak, most of the generated impressions are from the receiver's imagination
rather than from the target. Furthermore, it follows that the noise will increase when these impressions
are unable to be internally edited and must be reported. That is, noise is generated not so much from an
active imagination, but imagination coupled with an agreement not to edit the internal experience.
Editing our internal experience is something we all do in our daily communication: we rarely report to a
friend that our mind momentarily wandered during an interesting discussion. Humans appear to have
an ability for multi-processing, but we use situational filters to communicate coherently. So, why would
we deny this same ability to participants in AC experiments? In Figure 1, we represent schematically the
contributions to the noise produced by memory and the noise produced by not editing imagination.
Combination
Memory
Unedited
Imagination
Noise
Selected Photographs
Binary
ESP Cards
Unselected Movies
Universe
2
5
->00
Differentiable Cognitive Elements in the Target Pool
Figure 1. Schematic Representation of Sources of Cognitive Noise
As the number of differentiable cognitive elements in a target pool increases from two (for a binary
choice) to nearly infinite (for the universe), we propose that there is a trade-off between noise arising
from memory and noise arising from unedited imagination. For target pools containing fewer ele-
ments, the noise contribution from memory (i.e., the curve labeled "Memory" in Figure 1) exceeds im-
pressions arising from edited imagination. Regardless of one's internal fantasies, there is usually a com-
plete protocol restriction on allowable responses. The reverse is true for target pools that contain a
large number of cognitive elements: the contribution to the noise because of unedited imagination ex-
ceeds that arising from memory. In this case, protocols usually suggest that receivers report nearly all
internal impressions (e.g., in the ganzfeld protocol), and since there will likely be far more of these im-
pressions than there are target elements, the noise is increased. At the same time, since there are a large
number of elements, and because it is difficult to remember all possible elements and their factorial
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combinations, the contribution to the noise due to memory is reduced. We suggest that our National
Geographic magazine target pool represents a good compromise: there are enough differentiable ele-
ments to reduce the effects of memory, but few enough to allow reasonable editing of internal experi-
ences that arise from imagination.
The receivers in our experiments have, over time, learned the natural limitations of the National Geo-
graphic target pool by experience and by instruction. They have become skilled at internal editing and
do not report impressions that they know are absent from the overall target pool-thus there is less
incorrect material in their responses.
In Lantz, Luke, and May's 1992 experiment, where the dynamic targets could be virtually anything, the
receivers were unable to produce significant evidence of AC. They also produced, what is for us, signifi-
cantly reduced functioning with static targets. We speculate that this drop of functioning in both target
conditions arose because the protocol would not allow the receivers to edit their internal experience.
Since the dynamic targets could consist of anything, and since the receivers were blind to the static-vs-
dynamic target condition, they were unable to edit their imaginations, even for the static targets. To
illustrate this point, suppose that half the target pool were ESP cards and the other half were the ganz-
feld dynamic targets, but the receivers were blind to the target condition. In any given trial, even though
the target is actually the star ESP card, the receiver is inclined to report all internal imagery, whether it
be cartoon figures, car races, and/or sex scenes from movies. This increased the incorrect information
over what it would be for a simpler target pool of ESP-cards alone.
A strong word of caution is in order. Editing of internal experience because of sensory knowledge of the
target pool cannot inflate a differential rank-order statistic. It will, however, bias any rating scale to-
ward larger values. This is not a problem if ratings are used in correlational or comparative studies.
We define target pool bandwidth as the number of differentiable cognitive elements in the target pool.
Forced-choice experiments usually represent small bandwidths, video clips usually represent a large
bandwidth, and the National Geographic magazine photographs represent an intermediate bandwidth.
At this time, the definition is qualitative, but we will indicate ways in which it can be made more quanti-
tative. Nonetheless, the target pool bandwidth concept is testable.
The following hypotheses formed the basis of Lantz, Luke, and May's second study in 1993:
(1) A significant increase of AC will be observed for dynamic targets if the dynamic pool is designed
with an intermediate target pool bandwidth that matches the static pool from the 1992 study.
(2) An increase of AC will be observed for static targets because the receivers will be able to edit their
internal experience.
Summary of the second Anomalous Cognition Experiment - 1993
The details of the 1993 study may also be found in Lantz, Luke, and May (1994). In that study, they
included a static vs dynamic target condition to replicate the findings from the ganzfeld, but dropped
the sender condition: all trials were conducted without a sender.
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Target Pools - 1993
For this experiment, Lantz, Luke, and May redesigned both the static and dynamic targets with the
constraint that they all must conform to the topic, size, and affectivity homogeneity of the original static
targets. Surprisingly enough, they identified a large number of videos that could be edited to produce
50 National Geographic-like segments: an airplane ride through Bryce Canyon in Utah or a scanning
panoramic view of Yosemite Falls. Lantz, Luke, and May selected a single frame from within each dy-
namic target video clip, which was characteristic of the entire clip, to act as its static equivalent.
Thus, they were able to improve the target pools in two ways:
(1) The dynamic pool possessed an intermediate target pool bandwidth.
(2) The bandwidth of the dynamic and static pools were nearly identical, by design.
Data Analysis and Results - 1993
For each response, a single analyst conducted a blind ranking of five targets-the intended one and four
decoys-in the usual way. Lantz, Luke, and May computed effect sizes in the same way as in the 1992
study.
Three receivers individually participated in 10 trials for each target type and a fourth, 372, participated
in 15 trials per target type. Table 3 shows the average rank, the effect size, and its associated p-value for
the static target condition. We see that the combined data is significant and three of the four receivers
produced independently significant results.
Table 3.
Results for Static Targets - 1993 Experiment
Receiver
<Rank>
ES
p-value
9
2.20
0.565
0.037
372
1.87
0.801
9.7×10-4
389
3.10
-0.071
0.589
518
1.90
0.778
7.2×10-3
Totals
2.22
0.550
1.1×10-5
Lantz, Luke, and May observed a nearly significant increase of AC for the static targets in the 1993 ex-
periment compared to that of the 1992 experiment (X2 = 3.158, df = 1, p <0.075), and three of the four
receivers improved from their 1992 results. Thus, the second hypothesis (i.e., an increase in AC for
static targets) was strongly supported. Table 4 shows the same data for the dynamic targets.
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Tahle 4
Results for Dynamic Targets - 1993 Experiment
Receiver
<Rank>
ES
p-value
9
1.70
0.919
1.8×10-3
372
1.93
0.754
1.8×10-3
389
3.00
0.000
0.500
518
2.40
0.424
0.091
Totals
2.22
0.550
1.1 ×10-5
Using the rank-order statistics above, Lantz, Luke, and May saw no difference between static and dy-
namic targets in their 1993 study. The first hypothesis was confirmed: they observed a significant in-
crease of AC with dynamic targets in 1993 from that of 1992 (X2 = 9.942, df = 1, p ≤ 1.6 x 10-3).
A detailed analysis of the static vs dynamic target issue may be found in Lantz, Luke, and May (1994)
and in May, Spottiswoode, and James (1994).
General Discussion and Conclusions
One possible interpretation of the results from Lantz, Luke, and May's two experiments is that the
noise was sharply reduced by narrowing the target pool bandwidth. They observed a significant increase
of AC with the dynamic targets and a large increase with the static ones. Caution is advised in that this
analysis is post hoc, and there were a number of potential contributing factors. For example, in the first
experiment, receivers were not monitored and were at distances ranging from a few 100s to 1000s of km
from the targets."In addition, feedback was delayed for a few days due to the delivery time of the U.S.
postal service. In the second experiment, the receivers were monitored, given immediate feedback, and
the targets were meters away. Yet, we find the bandwidth analysis compelling because of its "common
sense" appeal. Since the properties attributed to target pool bandwidth may be subjected to experimen-
tal scrutiny, we urge that such studies be carried out. For example, is there a parabolic-like functional
relationship between the target pool bandwidth and the AC effect size?
To conduct such experiments, we need to develop a quantitative definition of target pool bandwidth.
This implies a quantitative definition of cognitive content, and we have been applying our fuzzy set
analysis (May, Utts, Humphrey, Luke, Frivold, and Trask, 1990) toward this end. We are also looking at
other measures that might be used. Nonetheless, it seems clear that a quantitative definition of band-
width is within reach. Once realized, and if the target pool bandwidth idea can be verified, we all may
benefit from a specific protocol that will reduce the noise in free-response AC experiments.
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References
Bem, D. J. and Honorton, C. (1994). Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of
information transfer. Psychological Bulletin. 115, No. 1, 4-18.
Honorton, C. and Harper, S. (1974). Psi-mediated imagery and ideation in an experimental procedure
for regulating perceptual input. The Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research. 68,
156-168.
Honorton, C. (1975). Error Some Place! Journal of Communication, 103-116.
Honorton, C. and Ferrari, D. C. (1989). "Future Telling:" A meta-analysis of forced-choice
precognition experiments, 1935-1987. Journal of Parapsychology, 53, 281-308.
Honorton, C., Berger, R. E., Varvoglis, M. P., Quant, M., Derr, P., Schechter, E. I., and Ferrari, D. C.
(1990) Psi Communication in the ganzfeld. Journal of Parapsychology, 54, 99-139.
Lantz, N. D. and Luke, W. L. W., and May, E. C. (1994). Target and sender dependencies in anomalous
cognition experiments. Submitted for publication in the Journal of Parapsychology.
-
May, E. C., Utts, J. M., Humphrey, B. S., Luke, W. L. W., Frivold, T. J., and Trask, V. V. (1990). Advances
in remote-viewing analysis. Journal of Parapsychology, 54, 193-228.
May, E. C., Spottiswoode, S. J., and James, C. L. (1994b). Shannon entropy as an intrinsic target
property: Toward a reductionist model of anomalous cognition .. Submitted for publication in the
Journal of Parapsychology.
Rosenthal, R. and Rubin, D. B. (1989). Effect size estimation for one-sample multiple-choice-type
data: Design, analysis, and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 332-337.
Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research (Rev. ed). Newbury Park, Ca: Sage.
Schlitz, M. J. and Honorton, C. (1992). Ganzfeld psi performance within an artistically gifted
population. The Joumal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 86, No. 2, 83-98.
=
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Phenomenological Research and Analysis: Final Report
APPENDIX D
Shannon Entropy as an Intrinsic Target Property:
Toward a Reductionist Model of Anomalous Cognition
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Shannon Entropy as an Intrinsic Target Property:
Toward a Reductionist Model
of
Anomalous Cognition
by
Edwin C. May, Ph.D.
S. James P. Spottiswoode (Consultant)
and
Christine L. James
Science Applications International Corporation
Cognitive Sciences Laboratory
Menlo Park, CA
Abstract
We propose that the average total change of Shannon's entropy is a candidate for an intrinsic target
property. We analyze the results of two lengthy experiments that were conducted from 1992 through
1993 and find a significant correlation (Spearman's e = 0.337, df = 31, t = 1.99, p ≤ 0.028) with an
absolute measure of the quality of the anomalous cognition. The 1993 result replicated the similar find-
ing from the 1992 study. We describe the methodology, the calculations, and correlations in detail and
provide guidelines for those who may wish to conduct similar studies. In addition, we provide circum-
stantial evidence which leads us toward a reductionist view of anomalous cognition.
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Introduction
The psychophysical properties of the five known senses are well known (Reichert, 1992). At the "front
end," they share similar properties. For example, each system possesses receptor cells that convert
some form of energy (e.g., photons for the visual system, sound waves for the audio system) into electro-
chemical signals. The transfer functions are sigmoid; that is, there is a threshold for physical excitation,
a linear region, and a saturation level above which more input produces that same output. How these
psychophysical reactions translate to sensational experience is not well understood, but all the systems
do possess an awareness threshold similar to the subliminal threshold for the visual system.
Since all the known senses appear to share these common properties, it is reasonable to expect that if
anomalous cognition (AC)* is mediated through some additional "sensory" system, then it, too, should
share similar properties. For example, a putative AC sensory system should possess receptor cells that
have a sigmoidal transfer function and exhibit threshold and saturation phenomena. As far as we know,
there are no candidate neurons in the peripheral systems whose functions are currently not understood.
So, if receptor cells exist, it is likely that they will be found in the central nervous system. Since 1989, our
laboratory has been conducting a search for such receptor sites (May, Luke, Trask, and Frivold, 1990);
that activity continues.
There is a second way in which receptor-like behavior might be seen in lieu of a neurophysiology study.
If either an energy carrier for AC or something that correlated with it were known, then it might be
possible to infer sigmoidal functioning at the behavioral level as opposed to the cellular level. Suppose
we could identify an intrinsic target property that correlated with AC behavior. Then, by manipulating
this variable, we might expect to see a threshold at low magnitudes and saturation at high magnitudes.
To construct such an experiment, it is mandatory that we eliminate, as much as possible, all extraneous
sources of variance and adopt an absolute measure for the AC behavior (Lantz, Luke, and May, 1994).
We can reduce onc source of variance by considering what constitutes a good target in an AC experi-
ment. Delanoy (1988) reported on a survey of the literature for successful AC experiments and catego-
rized the target material according to perceptual, psychological and physical characteristics. Except for
trends related to dynamic, multi-sensory targets, she was unable to observe systematic correlations of
AC quality with her target categories.
Watt (1988) examined the target question from a theoretical perspective. She concluded that the "best"
AC targets are those that are meaningful, have emotional impact, and contain human interest. Those
targets that have physical features that stand out from their backgrounds or contain movement, novelty,
and incongruity are also good targets.
In trying to understand these findings and develop a methodology for target selection for process-ori-
ented research, we have constructed a metaphor. Figure 1 shows three conceptual domains that con-
tribute to the variability in AC experiments. The engineering metaphor of source, transmission, and
detector allows us to assign known contributors to the variance of specific domains. Without controlling
* The Cognitive Sciences Laboratory has adopted the term anomalous mental phenomena instead of the more widely known psi.
Likewise, we use the terms anomalous cognition and anomalous perturbation for ESP and PK, respectively. We have done so
because we believe that these terms are more naturally descriptive of the observables and are neutral in that they do not imply
mechanisms. These new terms will be used throughout this paper.
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or understanding these sources, interpreting the results from process-oriented research is problemati-
cal, if not impossible.
Transmission
Source
Detector
AC Response
Figure 1. Information-transfer Metaphor
For example, suppose that the quality of an AC response actually depended upon the physical size of a
target, and that affectivity was also a contributing factor. That is, a large target that was emotionally
appealing was reported more often more correctly. Obviously, both factors are important in optimizing
the outcome; however, suppose we were studying the effect of target size alone. Then an "attractive"
small target might register as well as a less attractive large target and the size dependency would be con-
founded in unknown ways.
Our metaphor allows us to assign variables, such as these, to specific elements. Clearly, an individual's
psychological response to a target is not an intrinsic property of a target; rather, it is a property of the
receiver. Likewise, size is a physical property of the target and is unrelated to the receiver. Generally,
this metaphor allows us to lump together the psychology, personality, and physiology of the receiver and
consider these important factors as contributors to a detector "efficiency." If it is true that an emotion-
ally appealing target is easier to sense by some individuals, we can think of them as more efficient at
those tasks. In the same way, all physical properties of a target are intrinsic to the target and do not
depend on the detector efficiency. Perhaps, temporal and spatial distance between target and receiver
are intrinsic to neither the target nor the receiver, but rather to the transmission mechanism, whatever
that may be.
More than just nomenclature, our metaphor can guide us in designing experiments to decrease certain
variabilities in order to conduct meaningful process-oriented research. Some of the methodological
improvements seem obvious. If the research objective is to understand the properties of AC rather than
understanding how an AC ability may be distributed in the population, then combining results across
receivers should be done with great caution. To understand how to increase high jumping ability, for
example, it makes no sense to use a random sample from the general population as high jumpers; rather,
find a good high jumper and conduct vertical studies (no pun intended). So, too, is it true in the study of
AC. We can easily reduce the variance by asking given receivers to participate in a large number of trials
and not combining their results.
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May, Spottiswoode, and James (1994) suggest that by limiting the number of cognitively differentiable
elements within a target, the variance can also be decreased. A further reduction of potential variance
can be realized if the target pool is such that a receiver's emotional/psychological response is likely to be
more uniform across targets (i.e., reducing the detector variance as shown in Figure 1).
Having selected experienced receivers and attended to these methodological considerations, we could
then focus our attention on examining intrinsic target properties. If we are successful at identifying one
such property, then all process-oriented AC research would be significantly improved because we would
be able to control a source of variance that is target specific. The remainder of the paper describes two
lengthy studies that provide the experimental evidence to suggest that the average of the total change of
Shannon's entropy is one such intrinsic target property.
Approach
The AC methodological details for the two experiments can be found in Lantz, Luke, and May (1994).
In this section, we focus on the target calculations and the analysis techniques.
Shannon Entropy: A Short Description
Building upon the pioneering work of Leo Szilard (1925, 1929), Shannon and Weaver (1949) developed
what is now called information theory. This theory formalizes the intuitive idea of information that
there is more "information" in rare events, such as winning the lottery, than in common ones, such as
taking a breath. Shannon defined the entropy for a given system as the logarithmic average of the prob-
ability of occurrence of all possible events in the system. Entropy, used in this sense, is defined as a
measure of our uncertainty, or lack of information, about a system. Suppose, for example, we had an
octagonal fair die (i.e., each of the eight sides is equally likely to come up). Applying Equation 1, below,
to this system gives an entropy of three bits, which is in fact the maximum possible for this system. If, on
the other hand, the die were completely biased so that the same side always came up, the entropy would
be zero. In other words, if each outcome is equally likely then each event has the maximum surprise.
Conversely, there is no surprise if the same side always lands facing up.
In the case of images, a similar analysis can be used to calculate the entropy. For simplicity, consider a
black and white image in which the brightness, or luminance, of each picture element, or pixel, is mea-
sured on a scale from zero to 255, that is, with an eight bit binary number. Equation 1 can again be used
to arrive at a measure of the picture's entropy. As with the other sensory systems were gradients are
more easily detected, we shall show that the gradient of Shannon's entropy is correlated with AC perfor-
mance far better than the entropy itself.
In other sensory systems, receptor cells are sensitive to incident energy regardless of "meaning", which
is ascribed as a later cognitive function. Shannon entropy is also devoid of meaning. The pixel analysis
ignores anything to do with cognitive features. From this point of view, a photograph of a nuclear blast
is, perhaps, no more Shannon-entropic than a photograph of a kitten; it all depends on the intensities,
which were used to create the photographs.
1
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Target Calculations
Because of the analogy with other sensorial systems, we expected that the change of entropy would be
more sensitive than would be the entropy alone. The target variable that we considered, therefore, was
the average total change of entropy. In the case of image data, the entropy is defined as:
S1= - = Pm 1082(Pmi),
(1)
where pmk is the probability of finding image intensity m of color k. In a standard, digitized, true color
image, each pixel (i.e., picture element) contains eight binary bits of red, green, and blue intensity, re-
spectively. That is, Nk is 255 (i.e., 28-1) for each k, k = r, g, b. For color, k, the total change of the
entropy in differential form is given by:
ds = |VS . dr + ist ds.
(2)
We must specify the spatial and temporal resolution before we can compute the total change of entropy
for a real image. Henceforth, we drop the color index, k, and assume that all quantities are computed
for each color and then summed.
To compute the entropy from Equation 1, we must specify empirically the intensity probabilities, Pm. In
Lantz, Luke, and May's 1993 experiment, the targets were all video clips that met the following criteria:
. Topic homogeneity. The photographs contained outdoor scenes of settlements (e.g., villages, towns,
cities, etc.), water (e.g., coasts, rivers and streams, waterfalls, etc.), and topography (e.g., mountains,
hills, desserts, etc.).
. Size homogeneity. Target elements are all roughly the same size. That is, there are no size surprises
such as an ant in one photograph and the moon in another.
. Affectivity homogeneity. As much as possible, the targets included materials which invoke neutral
affectivity.
For static targets, a single characteristic frame from a video segment was digitized (i.e., 640 x 480 pixels)
for eight bits of information of red, green, and blue intensity. The video image conformed to the NTSC
standard aspect ratio of 4×3, so we arbitrarily assumed an area (i.e., macro-pixel) of 16x 12 = 192 pix-
els from which we calculated the Pm. Since during the feedback phase of a trial the images were dis-
played on a Sun Microsystems standard 19-inch color monitor, and since they occupied an area approxi-
mately 20x 15 cm square, the physical size of the macro-pixels was approximately 0.5 cm square. Since
major cognitive elements were usually not smaller than this, this choice was reasonable-192 pixels
were sufficient to provide a smooth estimate of the Pm.
For this macro-pixel size, the target frame was divided into a 40x40 array. The entropy for the (i,j)'th
macro-pixel was computed as:
SI = - 2 pm 1082(Pm ).
where pm is computed empirically only from the pixels in the (i, j) macro-pixel and m is the pixel intensi-
ty. For example, consider the white square in the upper left portion of the target photograph shown in
Figure 2.
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Figure 2. City with a Mosque
The green probability distribution for this macro-pixel (3,3) is shown in Figure 3. The probability densi-
ty and the photograph itself indicate that most of the intensity in this macro-pixel is near zero (i.e., no
intensity of green in this case). In a similar fashion, the Sij are calculated for the entire scene. Since i and
j range from zero to 40, each frame contains a total of 1,600 macro-pixels.
0.4
Probability Density
0.2
n
0.00
20
40
60
80
100
Intensity (m)
Figure 3. Green Intensity Distribution for the City Target (Macro-pixel 3,3).
1
We used a standard image processing algorithm to compute the 2-dimensional spatial gradient for each
of the 1,600 macro-pixels. The first term in Equation 2 was approximated by its average value over the
image.
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The total change of entropy for the dynamic targets was calculated in much the same way. The video
segment was digitized at one frame per second. The spatial term of Equation 2 was computed exactly as
it was for the static frames. The second term, however, was computed from differences between adja-
cent, 1-second frames for each macro-pixel. Or,
as _AS,(1) = Si(1 + At) - Sy(1)
(3)
At
where At is one over the digitizing frame rate. We can see immediately that the dynamic targets will
have a larger 4S than do the static ones because Equation 3 is identically zero for all static targets.
In Lantz, Luke, and May's 1992 experiment, the static targets were digitized from scanned
photographs. This difference and its consequence will be discussed below.
AC-Data Analysis
Rank-order analysis in Lantz, Luke, and May's (1994) experiment demonstrated significant evidence
for AC; however, this procedure does not usually indicate the absolute quality of the AC. For example, a
response that is a near-perfect description of the target receives a rank of one. But a response which is
barely matchable to the target may also receive a rank of one. Table 1 shows the rating scale that we used
to assess the quality of the AC responses, regardless of their rank.
To apply this subjective scale to an AC trial, an analyst begins with a score of seven and determines if the
description for that score is correct. If not, then the analyst tries a score of six and so on. In this way the
scale is traversed from seven to zero until the score-description seems reasonable for the trial.
Table 1.
0-7 Point Assessment Scale
Score
Description
7
Excellent correspondence, including good analytical detail, with essentially no
incorrect information
6
Good correspondence with good analytical information and relatively little
incorrect information.
5
Good correspondence with unambiguous unique matchable elements, but
some incorrect information.
4
Good correspondence with several matchable elements intermixed with
incorrect information.
3
Mixture of correct and incorrect elements, but enough of the former to indicate
receiver has made contact with the site.
2
Some correct elements, but not sufficient to suggest results beyond chance
expectation.
1
Little correspondence.
0
No correspondence.
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Anomalous Cognition Experiment - 1992
In Lantz, Luke and May's 1992 experiment there were no significant interactions between target condi-
tion (i.e., static vs dynamic) and sender condition (i.e., sender vs no sender); therefore, they combined
the data for static targets regardless of the sender condition (i.e., 100 trials). The sum-of-ranks was 265
(i.e., exact sum-of-rank probability of p ≤ 0.007, effect size = 0.248). The total sum-of-ranks for the
dynamic targets was 300 (i.e., p < 0.50, effect size = 0.000).
Entropy Analysis
To examine the relationship of entropy to AC, two analysts independently rated all 100 trials (i.e., 20
each from five receivers) from the static-target sessions using the post hoc rating scale shown in Table 1.
All differences of assignments were verbally resolved, thus the resulting scores represented a reason-
able estimate of the visual quality of the AC for each trial.
We had specified, in advance, for the correlation with the change of target entropy, we would only use
the section of the post hoc rating scale that represented definitive, albeit subjective, AC contact with the
target (i.e., scores four through seven). Figure 4 shows a scatter diagram for the post hoc rating and the
associated AS for the 28 trials with static targets that met this requirement. Shown also is a linear least-
squares fit to the data and a Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient (e = 0.452, df = 26, t =2.58,
P ≤ 7.0 ×10-3).
This strong correlation suggests that AS is an intrinsic property of a static target and that the quality of
an AC response will be enhanced for targets with large AS. It is possible, however, that this correlation
might be a result of AS and the post hoc rating independently correlating with the targets' visual com-
plexity. For example, an analyst is able to find more matching elements (i.e., a higher post hoc rating) in
a visually complex target than in a visually simple one. Similarly, AS may be larger for more complex
targets. If these hypotheses were true, the correlation shown in Figure 4 would not support the hypoth-
esis that AS is an important intrinsic target property for successful AC.
To check the validity of the correlation, we used a definition of visual complexity, which was derived
from a fuzzy set representation of the target pool. We had previously coded by consensus, 131 different
potential target elements for their visual impact on each of the targets in the pool. We assumed that the
sigma-count (i.e., the sum of the membership values over all 131 visual elements) for each target is pro-
portional to its visual complexity. A description of the fuzzy set technique and a list of the target ele-
ments may be found in May, Utts, Humphrey, Luke, Frivold, and Trask (1990).
The Spearman rank correlation between target complexity and post hoc rating was small (e = 0.041,
df = 98, t =0.407, p ≤ 0.342). On closer inspection this small correlation was not surprising. While it is
true that an analyst will find more matchable elements in a complex target, so also are there many ele-
ments that do not match. Since the rating scale (i.e., Table 1) is sensitive to correct and incorrect ele-
ments, the analyst is not biased by visual complexity.
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Average Change of Spatial Entropy (bits)
Q = 0.452
df = 26
2.0
t = 2.58
p = 0.008
00
0
1.5
0
O
8
0
0
1.0 1
8
8
-
0.5
0.0
3
4
5
6
7
8
Rating Score
Figure 4. Correlation of Post Hoc Score with Static Target AS.
Since the change of Shannon entropy is derived from the intensities of the three primary colors (i.e.,
Equation 1 on page 5) and is unrelated to meaning, which is inherent in the definition of visual com-
plexity, we would not expect a correlation between AS and visual complexity. We confirmed this ex-
pectation when we found a small correlation (e = - 0.028, df = 98, t =- 0.277, p ≤ 0.609).
Visual complexity, therefore, cannot account for the correlation shown in Figure 4; thus, we are able to
suggest that the quality of an AC response depends upon the spatial information (i.e., change of Shan-
non entropy) in a static target.
A single analyst scored the 100 responses from the dynamic targets using the post hoc scale in Table 1.
Figure 5 shows the scatter diagram for the post hoc scores and the associated AS for the 24 trials with a
score greater than three for the dynamic targets. We found a Spearman correlation of p = 0.055, df = 22
(t =0.258, p ≤ 0.399).
This small correlation is not consistent with the result derived from the static targets; therefore, we ex-
amined this case carefully. The total sum of ranks for the dynamic-target case was exactly mean chance
expectation, which indicates that no AC was observed (Lantz, Luke, and May, 1994). May, Spotti-
swoode, and James (1994) propose that the lack of AC might be because an imbalance of, what they call,
the target pool bandwidth. That is, the number of different cognitive elements in the dynamic pool far
exceeded that in the static pool. This imbalance was corrected in the 1993 study and is analyzed below.
Regardless, we would not expect to see a correlation if there is no evidence of AC.
I
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Average Change of Total Entropy (bits)
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
2-
O
00 0
8
8
0
Q = 0.055
df = 22
0
3
4
5
5
7
8
Rating Score
Figure 5. Correlation of Post Hoc Score with Dynamic Target AS.
Anomalous Cognition Experiment - 1993
The details of the 1993 study may also be found in Lantz, Luke, and May (1994). In that study, they
included a static vs dynamic target condition, and all trials were conducted without a sender. They
changed the target pools so that their bandwidths were similar. They also included a variety of other
methodological improvements, which are not apropos to this discussion.
Lantz, Luke, and May selected a single frame from each dynamic target video clip, which was character-
istic of the entire clip, to act as its static equivalent. The static and dynamic targets, therefore, were
digitized with the same resolution and could be combined for the correlations.
For each response, a single analyst conducted a blind ranking of five targets-the intended one and four
decoys-in the usual way. Lantz, Luke, and May computed effect sizes in the same way as in the 1992
study.
Three receivers individually participated in 10 trials for each target type and a fourth participated in 15
trials per target type. Lantz, Luke, and May reported a total average rank for the static targets of 2.22
for 90 trials for an effect size of 0.566 (p ≤ 7.5x 10-5); the exact same effect size was reported for the
dynamic targets.
Entropy Analysis
Differing from the 1992 experiment, an analyst, who was blind to the correct target choice used the
scale, which is shown in Table 1, to assess each response to the same target pack that was used in the
rank-order analysis. The average total change of Shannon's entropy (i.e., Equation 2) was calculated
for each target as described above. Figure 6 shows the correlation of the blind rating score with this
gradient. The squares and diamonds indicate the data for static and dynamic targets, respectively.
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Q = 0.337
df =31
0
= 1.991
Dynamic
3
0
O
p = 0.028
0
0
0
8
2
Combined
8
0
0
1
14
Static
0
3
4
5
6
7
8
Rating Score
Figure 6. Correlations for Significant Receivers
The key indicates the Spearman correlation for the static and dynamic targets combined. In addition,
since the hypothesis was that anomalous cognition would correlate with the total change of the Shannon
entropy, Figure 6 only shows the scores in the upper half of the scale in Table 1 for the 70 trials of the
three independently significant receivers. The static target correlation was negative ( = - 0.284, df =
13, t =- 1.07, p ≤ 0.847) and the correlation from the dynamic targets was positive (p = 0.320,
df = 16, t =1.35, p ≤ 0.098). The strong correlation for the combined data arises primarily from the
entropic difference between the static and dynamic targets.
General Conclusions
To understand the differences between the results in the two experiments, we re-digitized the static set
of targets from the 1992 experiment with the same hardware and software that was used in the 1993
study. With this new entropy data, the correlation dropped from a significant 0.452 to 0.298 which is not
significant (t = 1.58, df = 26, p ≤ 0.063). Combining this data with the static results from the 1993
experiment (i.e., significant receivers) the static correlation was p = 0.161, df = 41 (t = 1.04, p <0.152).
The correlation for the static targets from the 1992 experiment combined with the significant static and
dynamic data from the 1993 experiment was significant (e = 0.320, df = 59, t = 2.60, p ≤ 0.006). These
post hoc results are shown in Figure 7. The combined data from the two experiments, including all re-
ceivers and all scores greater than four, give a significant correlation (e = 0.258, df = 64, t = 2.13,
p ≤ 0.018).
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0
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8
Combined
2
T
8
1
0
00
00100
00 0
Static
0
3
4
5
6
7
8
Rating Score
Figure 7. Correlations for Combined Experiments
We conclude that the quality of AC appears to correlate linearly with the average total change of the
Shannon entropy, which is an intrinsic target property.
These two experiments may raise more questions than they answer. If our conservative approach,
which assumes that AC functions similarly to the other sensorial systems, is correct, we would predict
that the AC correlation with the frame entropy should be smaller than that for the average total change
of the entropy. We computed the total frame entropy from the pi all of the 640x 480 pixels. The result-
ing correlation for the significant receivers in the 1993 experiment was o = 0.234, df = 31 (t = 1.34,
p ≤ 0.095). This correlation is considerably smaller than that from the gradient approach, however, not
significantly so. We computed the average of the Sij for the 1,600 macro-pixels as a second way of mea-
suring the spatial entropic variations. We found a significant Spearman's correlation of p = 0.423, df =
31 (t = 2.60, p ≤ 0.007) for the significant receivers in the 1993 experiment. The difference between the
correlation of the quality of the AC with the frame entropy and with either measure of the spatial gradi-
ent is not significant; however, these large differences are suggestive of the behavior of other sensorial
systems (i.e., an increased sensitivity with change of the input).
We have quoted a number of different correlations under varying circumstances and have labeled these
as post hoc. For example, hardware limitations in 1992 prevented us from combining those data with the
data from 1993. Thus, we recalculated the entropies with the upgraded hardware in 1993 and recom-
puted the correlations. Our primary conclusions, however, are drawn only from the static results from
the 1992 experiment and the confirmation from the combined static and dynamic 1993 results.
It is clear from our analysis that we may have identified an intrinsic target property that correlates with
the quality of anomalous cognition. Our results suggest a host of new experiments and analyses before
we can come to this conclusion with certainty. For example, suppose we construct a new target pool that
is maximized for the gradient of Shannon's entropy yet meets reasonable criteria for the target pool
bandwidth. If the Shannon information is important, than we should see exceptionally strong AC. We
also must improve the absolute measure of AC. While dividing our zero-to-seven rating scale in two
makes qualitative sense, it was an arbitrary decision. Rank order statistics are not as sensitive to cor-
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relations as are absolute measures (Lantz, Luke, and May, 1994); but, perhaps, if the AC effect size is
significantly increased with a proper target pool, the rank-order correlations will be strong enough. It
may be time consuming; however, it is also important to understand the dependency of the correlation
on the digitizing resolution. In the first experiment, we digitized the hard copy photographs using a
flatbed scanner with an internal resolution of 100 dots/inch and used 640x480 pixels for the static and
dynamic targets in the second experiment. Why did the correlation drop for the static targets by nearly
35 percent when the digitizing resolution decreased by 20 percent?
We noticed, post hoc, that the correlations exhibit large oscillations around zero below the cutoff score
of four. If we assume there is a linear relationship between AC scores and the total change of Shannon
entropy, we would expect unpredictable behavior for the correlation at low scores because they imply
chance matches with the target and do not correlate with the entropy.
Since we are suggesting a reductionist perspective, we speculate that the linear correlation suggests be-
havioral, albeit circumstantial, evidence for receptor-like functioning for the detection of AC. To deter-
mine if this is true, we must identify threshold and saturation limits.
It is absolutely critical to confirm our overall results and to provide answers to some of the enigmas from
our experiment. If we have identified an intrinsic target property, then all of our research can precede
more efficiently. Consider the possibilities if we were able to construct a target pool and eliminate a
known source of variance. Psychological and physiological factors would be much easier to detect. Giv-
en the availability of inexpensive video digitizing boards for personal computers, replication attempts
are easily within the grasp of research groups with modest operating budgets.
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References
Bem, D. J. and Honorton, C. (1994). Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of
information transfer. Psychological Bulletin. 115, No. 1, 4-18.
Delanoy, D. L. (1988), Characteristics of successful free-response targets: Experimental findings and
observations. Proceedings of Presented Papers, The Parapsychological Association 31st Annual
Convention, Montreal, Canada, 230-246.
Watt, C. (1988). Characteristics of successful free-response targets: Theoretical considerations.
Proceedings of Presented Papers, The Parapsychological Association 31st Annual Convention,
Montreal, Canada, 247-263.
Lantz, N. D. and Luke, W. L. W., and May, E. C. (1994). Target and sender dependencies in anomalous
cognition experiments. Submitted for publication in the Journal of Parapsychology.
May, E. C., Luke, W. L. W., Trask, V. V., and Frivold, T. J. (1990). Observation of neuromagnetic fields in
response to remote stimuli. Proceedings of Presented Papers, The Parapsychological Association
33rd Annual Convention, National 4-H Center, Chevy Chase, MD, 168-185.
May, E. C., Spottiswoode, S. J. P., and James, C. L. (1994). Managing the target pool bandwidth: Noise
reduction in anomalous cognition experiments.Submitted for publication in the Journal of
Parapsychology.
May, E. C., Utts, J. M., Humphrey, B. S., Luke, W. L. W., Frivold, T. J., and Trask, V. V. (1990). Advances
in remote-viewing analysis. Joumal of Parapsychology, 54, 193-228.
Reichert, H. (1992). Introduction to Neurobiology, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
Shannon, C. E. and Weaver, W. (1949). The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of
Illinois Press, Urbana, IL.
Szilard, L. (1925) On the extension of phenomenological thermodynamics to fluctuation phenomena.
Zeitschrift für Physik, 32, 753-788. English translation in The Collected Works of Leo Szilard:
Scientific Papers. B. T. Feld and G. W. Szilard, Ed. MIT Press Cambridge, 1972, 34-102.
Szilard, L. (1929). On the decrease of entropy in a thermodynamic system by the intervention of
intelligent beings. Zeitschrift für Physik, 53, 840-856, English translation in The Collected Works of
Leo Szilard: Scientific Papers. B. T. Feld and G. W. Szilard, Ed. MIT Press Cambridge, 1972,
103-129.
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Phenomenological Research and Analysis: Final Report
APPENDIX E
Security Measures In an Automated Ganzfeld System
and
SAIC FINAL REPORT: Ganzfeld Experiment
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Security Measures in an Automated Ganzfeld System
by
Kathy S. Dalton
Robert L. Morris
Department of Psychology
University of Edinburgh*
--
Dean Radin
Center for Advanced Cognitive Science
University of Nevada
&
Richard Wiseman
Psychology Division, Hatfield Campus
University of Hertfordshire
Abstract
The past success rate of the automated ganzfeld system has brought with it
both praise and criticisms from experimenters and critics alike. A new, improved
approach to security measures within the ganzfeld setting is described, along with the
implications that the need for such precautions entails. The specific example of the
current automated ganzfeld system and its security precautions in usc at the Koestler
Chair of Parapsychology in Edinburgh University is covered in some detail, with
recommendations for future improvements.
"The Koestler Chair of Parapsychology would like to gratefully acknowledge
the American Society for Psychical Research, the Parapsychology Foundation, and
the Society for Psychical Research for financial support of personnel and equipment
germanc mo this project.
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Introduction
As parapsychological testing procedures produce successful results, they auracı
increasingly sophisticated levels of criticism, including criticism of the security
aspects of the system. Safeguards against fraud or deviation from protocol are often
challenged, with regard to researchers as well as participants.
For participants, this is especially true for protocols that involve very few
individuals, already regarded as talented, including special sender-receiver pairs, or
those that focus on dramatic effects, such as macro-PK. Many parapsychologists
deliberately chose to avoid gifted individuals and telepathy procedures, because they
wished to escape the inevitable suggestions of frand that would likely follow positive
results. As Morris (1987), has argued, protocols that emphasize few participants and
dramatic effects are regarded as ideal by those who wish to avoid the noise and
uncertainty produced by weak results and the need for statistical inference.
Researchers who rely on such protocols are more likely to draw strong inferences
from them, and may find that their results are attractive tu the media. It is
unforminare, Therefore, that such dramatic effects are also regarded as ideal for the
psuedopsychic, the participant intending to cheat if given the opportunity. Most
effects developed over the years within the magic community tend to be dramatic,
because they are easily noticed and are therefore more impressive, as well as
entertaining.
In general, the more participants involved in a study the less likely deception
is, as one would need to posit increasingly complex collusion among different
individuals. Process-oriented research also mitigales against deception, as the internal
pairerns of results would need to be produced fraudulently as well. This is true
especially for individual differences effects, where those with some trails do better
than others despite conditions being equal (e.g. Palmer, 1977). Even here It could be
argued that if some participants produce fake results and others don't, than any
characteristics held in common by the fakes will be found to be correlated with psi
success. And if many participants are intending to produce fraudulent results but
differ in personal characteristics, it could be argued that certain characteristics might
still emerge as correlated with success because those who possess them (such as
extroversion), will be better able to negotiate weakened procedures. Once again, with
larger population samples, such possibilities become increasingly unlikely unless the
participants are all drawn from the same tightly knit group. This poses a problem,
because many investigators may not have the necessary resources to conduct larger
studies and/or may not be able to locate enough participants capable of the level of
performance that would he desired for effective process-oriented research. Thus, it is
important to employ procedures designed to minimize the likelihood of participant
fraud.
A second arca of security concerns precautions against experimenter fraud or
deviation from intended procedure. This is a serious consideration primarily for
protocols that employ a single experimenter and where fraud would likely to pass
unnoticed by others connected with the study, both colleagues and participants.
Experimenter fraud is of less concern with co-experimenter procedures. where
different sessions are conducted by different experimenters, and where independent
replications exist. When considering experimenter fraud it should be noted that
motivation can go in both directions. Onc may wish to get good results or keep a
program alive, obtain more funding and prestige, etc., especially if one is persuaded
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that the ettect is really there, although it is 'shy and currently cluding detection.
People who believe no one else will obtain the same results presumably are less likely
to fake outcomes since their own results will be called into question by the failure of
others. On the other hand, it could be argued that some researchers may be motivated
to produce chance results since they would then be regarded hy many as excellent
scientists, who are doing a fair evaluation of the phenomena but using
methodologically superior procedures, providing an important public service in a
difficult area. This might he true as well for researchers who do not expect to get
good results but suddenly find the results starting to be positive, and who are thus
threatened with the likelihood that their rigorous colleagues will regard them as
frandulent or at least incompetent, and will regard them as having been closer "true
believers" ull along. Thus, individual researchers may their motives questioned and
be under suspicion of fraud regardless of their results. This is more likely at earlier
stages of research when consistent patterns of findings among researchers have not
yet emerged. Such accusations, even when indirect and merely implied, may serve tu
damage a line of rescarch, hy casring unwarranted aspersions upon a researcher. This
may thus change the social dynamics of future research attempts in ways that might
reduce the likelihood of replication and extension of findings.
Given the possibility of attribution of fraud or procedural deviation, ideally one
would wish to employ procedures that eliminate thesc, without hopelessly
constraining the procedures to those that have no mal ecological validity and for
which one would have little reason to expect success. If the procedure's virtues could
casily be made obvious to all potential critics. all involved may be more able to relax.
enjoy their participation in the study, and feel confident that whatever results emerged
would not lead to unfounded accusations. In practice such perfection is undoubtedly
impossible and can only be approximated. The most effective solution, in
parapsychology as well as other research, is natural replication and extension, with
many participants and researchers involved. But it is also important and useful to
have procedures as well safeguarded as possible even at early stages, for several
reasons: 1) as a sign ot general competence; 2) to minimize unfair accusations; 3) 10
help all concerned feel comfortable with the way the results are going at various
stages of the smdy; 4) to provide conditions that will not need to be altered
substantially in later stages, following reasonable criticism of carlier studies; 5) to
discourage fraudulent individuals from participating and wasting researchers valuable
time; 6) to encourage others to feel confident in replication attempts; and 7) to
encourage potential sources of funding to feel confident that their funds will be
intelligently spent.
In the remainder of the paper we will consider the autoganzfeld procedure
currently in usc at Edinburgh University as an example of attempts to confront these
issues using a procedure that has received considerable praise and criticism in the
course of its development.
Development
The automated ganzfeld system of the Koestler Chair of Parapsychology at
Edinburgh University is a computer based system that provides anromatic data
recording, highly effective shielding against sensory cues, and resistance to both
subject and experimenter fraud. The program is run on a 33MHz 80386DX
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computer, equipped with a 210 MB fixed disk, 8 MB DRAM, four RS 232 serial
ports, an 80387 numeric coprocessor, and a super VGA monitor. The target
presentation system is an NEC PC/VCR, a frame-accurate NTSC videocassette
recorder equipped with an RS 232 serial interface. All VCR functions are controlled
by computer software, aud video, audio and computer graphics are routed in the
appropriate rooms (sender, receiver, or experimenter), through computer control.
The system at Edinburgh was originally conceived by Chuck Honorton, re-
designed by Dean Radin and Rnhin Taylor ro improve security features and sensory
shielding, and initially programmed and documented by Dean Radin. For a
description of the first operational system at Edinburgh. see Morris, et al. 1993.
Additional security features and sensory shielding have been implemented by Kathy
Dalton, who also performed the necessary up-grading of programming and
documentation. Consultations from Richard Wiseman were of great help in
improving security measures, and Deborah Delanoy provided helpful insights in the
carly conception of the automated ganzfeld security. Bob Morris was involved in all
stages of development.
LABORATORY LAYOUT
The Video Ganzfeld laboratory consists of four rooms, shown in Figure 1, and
Inbelled as RECEIVER (R), EXPT (E), VIDEO (V), and SENDER (S).
Receiver
R's room is double walled, double-doored, electromagnetically and acoustically
insulated. It attenuates airborne sounds between R's and $'s rooms by a minimum of
60 dB and a maximum of 100 JB over the andio spectrum (50 Hz to 8000 Hz,
Mackenzie, 1992). Some very low frequency vibrations can be felt inside R's room
if people in the Experimenters room jump up and down, and faint noises can heard.
When R is wearing the headphones, listening to white noise, and sitting in the
reclining chair (i.e., in ganzfeld stimulation), R's ability to hear any airborne sounds
or vibrations originating in the experimental suite is substantially reduced. In any
event no sound or vibration can be heard or felt in R's room that originated from S's
room.
Experimenter
E's room is adjacent to R's. It contains the computer that controls the
audio/video target presentation, audio mixing equipment, and other assorred
audio/video hardware (shown in detail in Figure 2).
Video Room
The viden room is double walled, electromagnetically and acoustically
insulated, and contains the target presentation system. This consists of two NEC PC-
VCRs, which are computer-controlled NTSC-format video tape recorder/players.
One. PC-VCR is used only to send the target clip to S; the other is used to play the
four judging clips to R. No sound from the VCR's can be detected outside the room
when the doors are closed.
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1
Sender
S is placed in a room located about 25 meters, and through four doors, from R.
S's room is not aconstically or electromagnetically shielded. The T'V monitor which
conveys the target material in S's room is positioned in the far corner away from the
door, with a five foot partition between it and the door, effectively shielding against
any extraneous light or color from the monitor being viewed through any cracks
around or under the door. The sound amplifier is similarly positioned, and all sounds
to tic rouin are conveyed through the headphones. This ensures that no airborne
sounds or vibrations can be heard outside of the senders room through the area around
the door. Thus, anyone standing or lying outside the senders room door cannot see or
hear the display in the sender. The skylight pictured in S's room is completely
covered by an opaque dark green window shadc. Additionally, new locks have been
installed on $'s door, with only research personnel actively involved in the ongoing
Studies having access to the keys.
ourside wall
window
lounge
.....
experimental suite
office
office
... . ... .....
stairs down
stars up
restroom
25 meters
office
office
office
skylight
ottice
office
Figure 1. Laboratory layout.
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RECEIVER
... ..
SENDER
Judging
target
monitor
Emp
judgiug
monitor
VCR S
-
MIXET K'E
mixer S
VCK WE
...
C
tue munlabon
PC
AMP
EXPERIMENTER
VIDEO ROOM
audio
video
digital
Figure 2. Audio, viden, and digital communications layout. This design isolates the
audio and video (a/v) paths for S and R/E to avoid introducing sensory cucs. The
only direct connection between S's and R's a/v systems is the output of the audio
mixer into the input of the S audio mixer.
HARDWARE
The automated ganzfeld system at the Koestler Chair uses the following system
hardware:
. 2 NFC. PC-VCRs (NTSC video format)
· 3 NTSC video monitors (R, S, E)
. 1 Technics stereo cassette tape recorder (for the mentation & judging)
· 1 Realistic stereo cassette tape recorder (for playing relaxation instructions
and white noise)
. 2 microphones (clip-on for R, handheld for E)
· 2 Realistic four-channel stereo mixers
. 2 Realistic stereo audio amplifiers
. 3 headphones
. 1 MJN brand 33MHz 80386DX computer equipped with a 210 MB fixed disk,
8 MB DRAM, four RS 232 serial ports. 80387 numeric coprocessor, super
VGA monitor, and printer
. I red incandescent bulb and flexipose lamp
· audio cassette tape with relaxation instructions & white noise
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SOFTWARE
The program runs under a combination of Microsoft Visual Basic 1.0 and
Windows 3.1/DOS 5. and is passworded. The program produces a carafile during
each session which is stored to both the hard drive and a floppy disk, and is sent for
immediate printout to the printer at session conclusion. All target presentations. VCR
video and audio signals, as well as computer graphics, are computer-controlled. The
target presentation system involves two separate NEC PC/VCR's, which are frame
accurate NTSC videocassette recorders equipped with RS 232 serial interfaces.
SECURITY MEASURES
The automated ganzfeld procedure developed at PRI. hy Honorion and
colleagues is widely recognized as one of the soundest methodologies in
parapsychology, However, it has not been without its criticisms. Naturally, any
replication attempt of complex sindies, such as those carried out at the PRL
laboratories, must take into account the advantages and disadvantages encountered in
those studies, and while capitalizing on the former, must attempt to eliminate or
minimize the latter. We have auempted to evaluate these criticisms in our own work
at the Koestler Chair, and will address those issues here. The main criticisms of the
carlier automated ganzfeld work (e.g., Morris, et al, 1993) have been:
(a) Possible subliminal sound Icakage to the receiver,
(b) Repeated playing of the target tape during sending might alter it physically
such as to provide a subile che,
(c) Sounds from the VCR might provide cues to the experimenter about which
clip was being played as target.
(ct) Sound leakage from the target room to experimenter might provide cues, if
senders are noisy,
(e) There could be a complex electronic signalling system herween sender and
receiver, and,
(f) Deliberate experimenter fraud.
In the case of criticism (a), possible subliminal sound leakage to the receiver,
the audio systems, as well as the video systems. are electronically isolated from each
other. The only direct connection between S's and R's audio or video systems is the
output of the audio mixer into the output of the S audio mixer. See Figure 2. Thc
technicians from the Electronics/Audio-Visual department at Tiniversity of Edinburgh
have electronically checked all such connections, following recommended procedures
(all sound levels at upper limit), and have verified that no such leakage exists in our
facility. These checks were conducted prior to the beginning of the present ganzfeld
study underway, and again at approximately the midway point.
In response to (b), that repeated playing of the target tape during sending might
alter it physically such as to provide a subile cuc, our system utilizes two separate
tapes for sending and judging, which are housed in two separate NEC PC/VCR's, and
totally under computer-control. Two separate VCR's are used, and sensorially
isolated in a separate mom away from E, in response to a theoretical sensory cue (c),
that sounds from the VCR might provide cues to the experimenter about which clip
was being played as target, allowing E w guess S's target clip. The Theoretical cue
may work as follows: it is possible, although unlikely, that by E hearing S's VCR
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rewinding or fast-forwarding the video tape before it begins to play, that E can get a
hint about which target pool, and possibly which specific target clip, the VCR is
playing. Such a cue would obviously bias E wwards certain targets or a particular
target. F. might then inadvertently transfer this bias to K during the judging process,
and this is clearly unacceptable.
Note this sensory cue is only possible if :
.
E is familiar with the locations of the target pools on the video tape,
.
E knows the order of the clips within each puul.
·
F. pays attention to how long the VCK rewinds or fast-forwards, or
perhaps notices the video tape counter, and,
the video tape always begins from the same location (e.g., it always
rewinds to the beginning of the tape at the beginning of each session).
To eliminate these potential cues in our facility, we have taken the following
steps in our procedure. The VCR's have been placed in a separate non-adjoining,
sound attenuated room in the experimental suite, behind two doors. It has been
verified by rescarch personnel that any video tape movement sounds cannot he heard
in the experimental suite or in E's room. The digital tape counters have been
completely blocked from view from inside the housing of the VCR, which also
effectively removes any possibility of accessing control of the VCR through the
remote control. The front control panels are inaccessible, being enclosed by the metal
housing unit for the VCR's. The video clips themselves are all exactly one minute
long, eliminating any cueing from the length of time the clip is played, even if they
could be heard. The order of the clips within each target pool is fixed by the recorded
order on the video tape, but the order in which they are played during the judging
pmcess is always freshly randomized for each session. Thus, E's that are not familiar
with the order on the video tape will never know the actual target sequence within
each pool. The sender video tape is never rewound in the beginning of the tape, but
starts up where the tape stopped at the end of the last session. It has been verified by
rescarch personnel that no sound can be heard from the video room, and the computer
program is written in ensure that no timing cues (e.g. tape rewind times, etc.) are
available to the experimenter, thus, E cannot receive any information regarding tape
movement. The R and S video tapes are locked into the two VCR's via the specially
designed meral housing unit, with a brittle plastic security tab, eliminating the
possibility that E may surreptitiously retrieve one or both of the tapes and view all of
the targets to learn theit position on the tape. This also prevents other forms of
potential fraud, such as substituting S's actual video with a specially prepared sham
tape with only one target repeatedly recorded throughout the tapc. By doing this. E
could produce fraudulent hits if (a) F. knows how to read digital addresses on the real
S video tape, (b) has access to another PC-VCR to dub the digital addresses to the
sham tapc and, (c) can retrieve the sham tape and substitute the real one at the end of
each session.
Another concern we have attempted to rectify is that of (d), that sound leakage
from the target room to experimenter might provide cues, if senders are noisy. As
was noted above in the description of both the experimenter and sender's rooms, theso
rooms are separated by some distance (approximately 25 meters), and a small flight
of stairs. In addition, we have had our facilities acoustically evahated (sound
attenuation herween S's room and the foyer of the experimental suite was above 55dB
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from 125Hz on np, and presumably higher for the experimental room itself), and
veritied that even without headphones on, our experimenters could not hear shouts
from the target room. In addition, there is an electrical sensing system connected to
the door of S's room that was designed to detect the opening of the door by activating
a flashing red light in E's room. Consequently, if S left the room during the
experiment, E would instandy be alerted. Ax an added precaution, the door into the
experimental foyer is kept locked during sessions. In the present study currently
underway only laboratory staff are used as senders. who all know to be quiet.
In the case of (c), thar there could be a complex electronic signalling system
between sender and receiver, we consulted with several security firms in our attempts
to evaluate and address this. They confinned that while we could conceivably do a
great deal to prevent and detect known signalling systems, given the present state of
technology it would be extremely expensive to guard against all available types of
signalling systerns. Furthermore, the technology of such signalling systems is rapidly
expanding and any detection systems would necessarily require continuos, and
expensive, upgrading. Using only laboratory staff as senders is one way of
addressing this, as is the electrical sensing system mentioned above to detect any S
leaving the sending room before the proper time. There remains the possibility of a
fixed monitoring system in the sender's room, or monitoring of the sender's mom hy
an accomplice outside of the room. Our present physical circumstances make this
unlikely, as the room is periodically inspected and we monitor the environment
during sessions for strangers. The layout of the sender's room is designed to prevent
any one standing or lying outside of the door to receive any visual or auditory
information about the target clip. Additionally, such systems involve die cu-
operation of the receiver. We currently use cach receiver for only one session, thus
meaning that any deliberate fraud by receivers would involve several people.
The last criticism to be addressed is that uf (O). deliberate experimenter frand.
We advocate the use of multiple experimenters in any automated ganzfeld
experiments. We are currently using three main experimenters, plus four senders.
All of the experimenters participate as needed in the role as sender, plus one other
laboratory staff member. Thus, each session will have two members of the
experimental team involved. The automated ganzfeld program records session data
not only to the hard drive, but also to floppy disk. This floppy disk is stored in a
secure location by one of the experimenters, and produced before cach trial.
Immediately after each session. as soon as the computer has recorded the session as
completed, multiple copies of the session datafile are printed out. Each experimenter
receives one of these session records, and one is included in the session file which,
along with the audio taped subject mentation, is placed in the unit's Security Cabinet.
For more detail on the secunty precautions involved in accessing the Parapsychology
unit's Security Cabinet, please sec Delanoy, et al, (1993). The session records on
computer disk aue compared to printouts in the experimenters' possession for
discrepancies before any data are analyzed. A minimum of two experimenters arc
required to sign off on the hand-written record of the participants target responses,
which is then included in the subject file with the computer print-out.
In addition to the above security measures, we have also conducted periodic
randomness checks on the program, using a chi square test for numhers solecred
uniformly at random. The interpretation of the RNG output by the program was
checked by running a series of mini-trials, using the program to generate requests for
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targets and conditions, and verifying these as above. Those checked were carried out
prior to the current study and at intervals throughont. These were conducted not only
by the experimenters in the Parapsychology unit. but also by specialists in Artificial
Intelligence and Computer Engineering in the Psychology Department. Randomness
checks and program interpretation were found to be within specificd parameters.
Example of a Process-Oriented Autoganzfeld Study
The system described above can easily he tailored to produce a variety of
different experimental conditions, to explore those that work best in general, or best
for specific participant populations. It can also vary conditions in accordance with
the design of process-oriented studies. Currently it is being used in a study to
evaluate the role of the sender. Although previous autoganzfeld research has always
employed senders (Honorton, et al. 1990). earlier ganzfeld studics have produced
results both with and without senders (Hunorton, 1985).
The present study employs three conditions, each with 32 participants pre
selected to match the characteristics of carlier autoganzfeld successes as best we
could, e.g. artistic or musical talent, positive attrude toward psi, and so on. In two
conditions, participants are introduced to a lab associate who is described as a helper
who may or may not be serving as a sender. The initial preparation of the receiver
proceeds as usual. When the helper arrives at the target room, the computer system
randomly selects whether the sender stays to send or is asked to leave, and displays
this decision on the monitor screen. If asked to leave, the sender goes elsewhere in
the building. In this way receiver and experimenter remain blind as to the sender's
presence until the end of the session. In the third condition, there is always a sender
and all parties know this from the start. In this way we hope to assess the
contribution of the physical presence of the sender as well as the psychological effects
of knowing there is a sender. Only Jab personnel are used as senders. The study
finishes in early June, and the basic results for each of the three conditions will be
available for presentation at the convention.
Discussion
In our efforts to set up appropriate automated ganzfeld procedures from which
to attempt replication of Honorton's successful series of ganzfeld trials, we feel we
were moderately successful. In any study undertaken in the ganzfeld the
psychological comfort and well being of the participant must be taken into account.
In studies which do involve receivers bringing in their own sender. for example, the
remote location of the sender's room, which is up a flight of stairs and down a
corridor, may impart a sense of isolation to the sender, and a sense of being 'cut-off"
from that sender for the receiver. We see no solution to this while still maintaining
the integrity of the protocol. In addition, there is no direct. line-of-sight connection
with the sender's room for the experimenter, making it difficult for the experimenter
to be sure that the sender does not some how de-activate the electronic signalling
device on the door and leave the sending room, possibly in some attempt to
communicate with the receiver. We have chosen not to monitor the sender and
receiver rooms via cameras as this can give participants the feeling that "big brother' is
'watching' thom, making them feel uncomfortable and self-conscious. Honorton
himself' cantinned against the use of cameras inside the sender/receiver rooms
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(Honorton, 1992). Additional security measures are being developed which address
the psychological comfort of the involved parties while ensuring that a high level of
experimental protocol is met.
There are many factors that come into play within a laboratory experimental
situation that are never covered in the protocol designed to that describe that
procedure. For example, some participants may not complete all of their forms
before arrival for the session, and may thus be asked to complete them at the lab upon
arrival, immediately prior to the ganzfeld session itself. If, in fact, a study produces
significant results, and such participants are among those scoring a large proportion of
hits, does this mean that it is beneficial to have participants fill out forms in the
laboratory because this in some way allow them to become habituated' to their
surrounding, and thus more comfortable with the experimental situation? Or is it
more related to the personality type that puts off completing things, such as forms,
until the last moment? If the reverse is true, and these particular participants score
lower than would normally be expected, was it because being asked to fill out forms
in the laboratory sitting, possibility causing a sense of 'making everyone wait un
them', made them more self- conscious and thus less like to be open and receptive?
Or, again, would this more likely be related to a personality correlate, such as
mentioned above? What are the 'magic' experimenter/subject interactions that are
most likely to help boti extroverts and introverts to feel more comfortable in the
laboratory setting? What types of 'magic' words could be incorporated into pre-
session chat that would facilitate the participants performance? Are the slight
variations in presentation of the ganzfeld experience ro receivers between
experimenters enough to influence the participants reaction to that experience? Are
there gender pairings within experimenter pairs that would prove more conducive
than others? Are men more comfortable with male experimenters, and women more
comfortable with female experimenters? Or do both sexes find it casier to 'open up'
to an experimenter of the opposite sex?
It is our view that in the face of the variability of social and psychological
factors that these questions involve, the physical environment of the participant
should be held as constant and secure as possible to aid in our understanding of psi
phenomena. We do acknowledge that there is no such thing as a single absolutely
fraud proof experiment and would not claim otherwise. However, it is vital that
experimental protocol that provides a high measure of security be coupled with the
type of warm, encouraging and friendly environment that psi seems to demand. In
this way all parties concerned can proceed comfortably with the business of doing
research and learning from cach session.
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Reference
Delanoy, D., Morris, R. L., Watt, C., Wiseman, R. (1993). A new methodology for
free-response testing outwith the laboratory: Findings from experienced
participants. paper presented at the 36th Annual Convention of the
Parapsychological Association. August 15-19, 1993, Toronto, Canada.
Honorton, C. (1985). Meta-analysis of psi ganzfcid research: A response to Hyman.
Journal of Parapsychology, 49, pp. 51 - 91.
Hunvitun, C. (1992). Personal communication.
Honorion, C., Berger, R., Varvoglis, M., Quant, M., Derr, P., Schecter, E., and
Ferrari, 1). (1990). Psi communication in the ganzfeld: Experiments with an
automated testing system and a comparison with a meta-analysis of carlier
studies. Journal of Parapsychology, 54, pp. 99 - 139.
Mackenzie, D. (1992). Attenuation of airborne sound between test rooms within the
Department of Psychology, Edinburgh University. Heriot-Watt University
Report No. 003/92, July 13, 1992.
MorTis, R. L. (1987). Minimising subject fraud in parapsychology laboratories.
European Journal of Parapsychology, 6. pp. 137 - 149.
Morris, R. L., Taylor, R., Cunningham, S., McAlpine, S. (1993). Toward replication
and extension of autoganzfeld results. Paper presented to the 36th Annual
Convention of the Parapsychological Association, Toronto, Canada, August 15
- 19, 1993.
Palmer, J. A. (1977). Attitudes and personality traits in experimental ESP rescarch.
In B. B. Wolman (Ed.), Handbook of Parapsychology, pp. 175 - 201. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
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SAIC FINAL REPORT
Project No. 99 - DAN 75 Ganzfeld Experiment
Prepared by:
Robert L Morris
Psychology Department
University of Edinburgh
Introduction
This project report describes the completion of Task 3, the conductance of an
experimental study comparing sender and non-sender conditions using an
automated ganzfeld testing procedure. Development of an appropriate
experimental protocol and the conductance of pilot studies has been described in
reports submitted earlier. Attached is a separate document recently prepared
by Kathy Dalton and myself describing in detail the steps taken to develop the
system we used in this study, to answer the reasonable questions raised by
critics about earlier automated ganzfeld procedures.
Experimental Methods
1).
The main conditions and rationale. There are three conditions:
sender absent, with receiver blind as to sender's presence or absence; sender
present, with receiver blind as to sender's presence or absenec; and sender
present., with receiver and experimenter aware of sender's presence. The first
two conditions are designed to provide a tidy comparison of presence and
absence of sender. Expectation is the same for both conditions as no one is
aware of which condition will be used until the receiver preparation is
completed and the session underway. At that time, the sender enters the target
room and is informed by the computer whether to stay and send or leave the
target room. Experimenter and receiver do not learn whether or not the sender
stayed and was active until the session is over and the blind is broken. The
third condition is included to enable us to examine the role of expectation, and
to provide a condition which more closely replicates the original autoganzfeld
procedures. Every third session is in Condition 3; the others are randomly
assigned by the computer system RNG to Condition 1 or 2. The study reported
here was terminated after 72 sessions, to enable the final report to be submitted
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by the deadline. Further sessions will be conducted, however, until at least 32
have been conducted under each condition.
2).
Participant population Our participants have been recruited from
the local artistic community, including musicians, visual artists, writers, actors
and dancers, primarily the first two categories. Many were students from local
art schools or the Reid School of Music, as well as other local individuals with
creative skills who had contacted us through word of mouth, or having seen a
poster, or having taken evening courses with us. All were selected to have a
positive attitude toward the topic and to have had at least one experience that
they felt might have been psychic in nature. Of the 72 participants, 34 were
males and 38 were females. Ages ranged from 17 to 61, with most in their early
and mid 20's. Although the earlier ganzfeld participants were on average over
ten years older, the highly successful Julliard series as well as the successful
Cunningham pilot study completed in Edinburgh in winter of 1993 both drew
from creative student populations.
3).
Targets All targets were drawn from eighteen target pools of four
targets cach, All were dynamic film clips lasting sixty seconds each, a blend of
targets from the earlier pools used in the Honorton autoganzfeld series, as well
as new material selected and edited by ourselves and described in an earlier
report.
4).
Physical Environment. All sessions have been conducted in the
suite of rooms plus target room that have been previously prepared and
acoustically tested, as described in a previous report and in the accompanying
Dalton report. The target room is 25 meters from the receiver's roum and the
receiver's room is acoustically shielded.
5).
Measures of individual differences. All potential participants
filled out a 72-item Personal Information Form (PIF) modelled after the one
used in Honorton's Psychophysical Research Laboratories. Those selected to
participate also completed the NEO Personality Inventory, plus a six-item open-
ended creativity questionnaire. The NEO has five scales: Neuroticism,
Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Each has six
subscales.
6).
Procedure. The procedure is as described earlier. Participants are
met by the member of stoff serving as experimenter (E) and taken to a greeting
room within our suite of rooms. Any questionnaires remaining to be filled out
and/or collected are taken care of. The member of staff serving as sender (S) is
introduced and participates in an informal chat followed by explanation of the
procedure by E. S explains the targets and target room, and takes a more
active role under the Honorton Replication Condition, noting that they will
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definitely be sending. The participant (P) is then shown the Target Room and
further explanation given by S. In the Sender/No Sender condition, P is told
that we expect success either way. Pis then shown E's room and taken to the
Ganzfeld room itself, where P settles in to a comfortable reclining chair.
Further instructions are given by E, the microphone and headphones are
attached (checked by P for comfort of sound level), and the eye shields are
attached. E and S give final words of encouragement to P, and then depart.
S procceds to the target room. If in the Sender/No Sender Condition, S waits
until the computer system randomly determines which of the two it is and asks
S on the video screen either to remain and send or leave the room. If the latter,
S goes elsewhere and engages in some quiet activity. If S is actually sending,
then S reclines in a comfortable chair, dons headphones and goes through the
relaxation procedure that P is experiencing. The sending period follows next,
for just under a half hour. During this time S watches a minute-long film clip
that has just been randomly selected by the computer system. It is shown eight
times, with approximately two minute intervals in between. S becomes
absorbed in the contents of the clip and may draw scenes from the clip to
facilitate focussing on it. S can hear P's impressions and may attempt to
reinforce mentally those impressions that seem to be accurate. S can hear
anything that P says, during both the sending period and the judging procedure
that follows. Once judging is completed and the data entered into the computer,
S rejoins E and P in the experimental suite to discuss the session.
Meanwhile, once E and S have left P. E goes to the experimenter room and
plays a 13-minute relaxation tape that is heard by both P and S (if there is an S
for that session). Following this, P hears white noise and attempts to gain
impressions of the target film. P has been encouraged to speak out loud any
impressions or other mentation that occurs during this time. All such
mentations as well as the judging process are tape recorded for future
reference. E can hear P and write down as much of P's description as possible.
At the end of the impression perind (same as the sending period) if there is an
S). E asks P how long the period seemed to last, and then reads aloud P's
impressions, to remind P and to allow P the opportunity to elaborate. F. then
asks P several questions about their impressions, e.g. any that were surprising,
vivid, unusual, or frequent, asks whether P felt there was a sender, and asks for
an estimate of how deeply into an altered state I felt they had been. E alsu
rates P's impressions for abundance, amount of cognitive references, proportion
of impressions that is judgeable, bizarreness of impressions, lability of
impressions and E's own expectation of success.
Then P is asked to remove the eye shields and turn on the TV monitor in their
room. The computer then displays all four film clips in the judging pool, to E on
E's monitor and to P on P's monitor. E and P discuss the four clips, with P
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noting any correspondences and E then suggesting for P's consideration any
additional possible correspondences that E noticed but P did not mention. P can
review each clip as often as desired. P then rates all four clips from one to 99,
doublechecks them, and E enters those ratings into the computer data disk. E
also rates all four clips without telling P. and enters those into the computer as
well. Once the data are stored, the computer reveals the correct target and
prints out four copies of the data for the session, including all the conditions, the
judgings and the target identity. Thus the data are stored permanently both on
disk and on immediately generated multiple hard copies. E, P and S convene at
the end of the session (even if there was no sender) to discuss how it went.
7).
Results
At present, 72 trials have been completed, 24 in the Replication Condition, 25 in
Send and 23 in No Send, The results for direct hits as rated by the participants
were as follows: Overall, 32% hits, p =. 112, h =. 15; Replication, 37.5% hits,
p =. 121, h =. 27; Send, 26% hits, p=,58, h =. 02; and No Send, 32% hits, p =. 278,
h =. 16. Although not statistically significant, these results are encouraging.
The Replication Condition results are comparable in percent hits and effect size
to the earlier Honorton work with Dynamic Targets (40% hits, h=,82). Our
Sender - No Sender Conditions differed from his conditions, so it is difficult to
draw direct comparisons. In general, our overall results compared favourably
with his overall results (34% hits, h =. 20). Thus, with even tighter conditions,
we still appear to be obtaining the ganzfeld effect although at this stage not
quite so strongly as Honorton's group.
Strength of results did not differ significantly among the three sending
conditions either by direct hit or sum of ranks measures. For both measures the
Replication Condition (sender known by all to be present) had the best results
but by a slender margin, with the No Sender Condition next best by direct hit
tally and Sender next best by sum of ranks. With larger N these small
differences might become meaningful, or might disappear entirely.
A second component of our analysis was to compare the Send - No Send direct
hit sessions lu see if there was any indication that any information coming
through would do so in different ways. As described earlier, certain
assessments of the characteristics of the session by P or E were gathered after
the impression period was over but before the judging period began, Two
emerged as significant or nearly so. P's were asked to estimate the duration of
the impression period. When the sender was prosent, P's cetimated duration
was 24.17 minutes on average; when there was no sender, the estimate was
only 12.19 seconds (U=3, p <. 005, 2-tail). Thus when there was no sender, P's
felt the time had passed more quickly. Additionally, E rated each session as to
how mundane or bizarre the impression had seemed to them, with respect to
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ganzfeld sessions in general, on a seven-point scale. When sender was present,
E rated the bizarreness at 2.5 on average; when sender was absent, E rated
bizarreness higher, at. 3.38 on average. (U=9, p =. 06. 2-tail). Thus the absence
of the sender seemed to allow more unnanal or idiosyncratic imagery to come
through, With regard to other measures, E's rating of the lability of
impressions was nonsignificantly higher in the absence of the sender; E's rating
of mentation abundance was nousignificantly lower in the absence of the
sender; and P's rating of depth of state achieved was essentially the same
whether or not thee was a sender. Finally we had asked P to comment on
whether or not they felt a sender had actually been present during the session.
Results were right at chance both when sender was present and not present.
Discussion
The above findings suggest that we are obtaining an effect with our
autoganzfeld procedure, despite having taken various measures to tighten the
procedure over those used in previous research. There is evidence as well that
when the sender is present the participant subjectively feels that the experience
is lasting longer and there is more mundane mentation reported, There is also
very weak evidence that when sender is present the impressions are more
abundant and the themes are more consistent, loss labile. Combining these
themes, it may be that when interactive with a sender, more information comes
into awareness but it tends to have a greater component of safe, cohesive,
business as usual imagery, which is added on and may make the session seem
longer. If there is no sender, at some level one is freer to be off on one's own and
let fresh and unusual impressions emerge mure naturally. Further data are
needed to examine these trends in more detail,
Future research
The present series will be extended through 96 sessions, ending in mid-June, at
which time the existing trends will be reanalyzed and a fuller analysis donc of .
the data as a whole, including an examination of individual differences
correlates both overall and within each condition. Experimenter ratings will be
analysed descriptively as well; at present E ratings appear slightly more
positive than P ratings, but are not included here as they were not part of a
preplanned analysis. More detailed examination of the mentation reports under
the three conditions will also be done. A followup study building on these
findings is intended, resources permitting. We will also be exploring certain
modifications of the technique to streamline it and facilitate replication
attempts by other researchers, such as shortening the montation period and
modifying the blind judging protocol. We continue to be impressed by the
ganzfeld as a technique for producing reasonably consistent effects, but it is
labour-intensive and somewhat expensive to do with proper safeguards.
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