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®
PROCEEDINGS
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
ON
CYBERNETICS AND SOCIETY
September 19-21, 1977
Sponsored by:
IEEE Systems, Man and Cybernetics Society
With the cooperation of:
College of American Pathologists
Human Factors Society
IEEE Computer Society
IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society
Mayflower Hotel, Washington, D.C.
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IEEE Catalog No: 77CH1259-1 SMC
Library of Congress Catalog Card No: 75-28733
Copyright C 1977
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017
Manufactured in The United States of America
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A NOTE FROM THE CHAIRMAN
With this conference we celebrate the 20th anniversary of the founding of this Society, even though our current
name has been with us only for the past seven years. Our worldwide membership of about 5000 members represent
many disciplines all brought together by the unifying thread of the "systems" approach to problem solving.
In this regard, we are indeed pleased to present John Warfield with our Outstanding Contribution Award. John
spent the past several years grappling with a methodology for coping with complexity. His concepts associated with
Interpretive Structural Modeling have been tested and proven as demonstrated by the session organized by
Raymond Fitz on this subject.
I feel it necessary to note that we have departed slightly from the conventional in this conference and have
introduced two sessions which, to some of our readers, may appear controversial.
The first is the session, Scientific Studies of Acupuncture: Acupuncture, as you know, originated thousands of
years ago in the orient and only recently received serious attention by Western medical scientists. Did you know that
acupuncture flourished in the U.S. from 1820 to.1850? According to a researcher at the National Library of Medicine,
acupuncture had been introduced to the U.S. from Europe and a substantial number of articles appeared on this
subject in the U.S. medical literature of the period; however, interest waned as he found only six articles for the
period 1850-1900. Today, the situation has changed. Western medicine now agrees there is something to
acupuncture. Its analgesic properties are recognized but not understood. Bruce Pomeranz of the University of
Toronto, whose article appears here, recently received international attention on his discovery of a possible
mechanism that describes why acupuncture works. Stephen Kim, trained in both Eastern and Western medicine, is a
trained acupuncturest. He departs from traditional methods by making use of an electronic device for locating
acupuncture points. His paper reports striking success over the traditional methods. The session is rounded out by
recent research by other investigators: Lee, Clifford and Mau. Clearly, acupuncture has now become a valid
research subject for biocyberneticists.
Our second unconventional area is Research in Psychoenergetics, organized by Hal Puthoff of SRI. The
presentation of this session is the outgrowth of the spectacular luncheon talk by Hal and Russ Targ at last year's
conference for which they received our Franklyn V. Taylor Best Presentation Award. Recognizing that their
professional integrity was at stake, they have gone to great lengths to assure impeccability of their work; neverthe-
less, a reviewer of their original paper which appeared in the IEEE Proceedings last year stated, "This is the sort of
thing I would not believe in even if it were true." Notwithstanding such emotional reactions, psychic phenomena are
a reality, and Hal Puthoff's session of first-rate carefully selected papers is worthy of your consideration.
Finally, among the unusual presentations, I commend your reading Bill Gevarter's excellent summary, "A Wiring
Diagram of the Human Brain as a Model for Artificial Intelligence."
William H. von Alven
Chairman
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COMMITTEE
William H. von Alven
Chairman
Ed Connelly
Vice-Chairman
Symposium Organizers/Directors:
-
1
James D. Palmer
Societal Systems
C. C. Li ..
Biomedical Systems & Biocybernetics
Andrew P. Sage
Systems Science, Methodology & Engineering
Thomas B. Sheridan
Man-Machine Systems
Hans Oestreicher
Pattern Recognition & Artificial Intelligence
Short Course Organizers:
Decision Analysis in Medicine: Methods and Applications
E. A. Patrick, MD
Societal Systems Methodology
A. P. Sage and J. N. Warfield
Public Presentation:
A Scientific View of ESP
Harold Puthoff & Russell Targ
Luncheon Speakers:
Society and Technology Assessment
Gretchen Kohlsrud
Arthur D. Hall
The Computer Invades the Farm
The Computer Invades the Home
Jerald J. Zeger
1
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with the initial condition that
=
kS
- e
1
2 (k + k')
m
to
"to.
k + kill
]
(7)
which is the achived velocity w
of the follower
during the inspection period totowe have
2(k + k'),
to
2 (k + k' ) (+ - to)
(8)
m
The spiral after-effect (SAF) is the velocity of the
stimulus relative to the follower, namely,
2 (k+k') to
m
Je
2 (k+k')
(t-to)
m
(9)
Since k and k' are positive, this equation shows that
the SAF is always opposite to the direction of the
stimulus S.
In equation (1), the mental force F is assumed to
be proportional to the difference of S and w, namely,
increasing S would increase F; however, at high speed
of S, w can not keep pace with S, and F will level
off and can not increase unlimitedly with S, thus
F would be
F = k(1 - e-S - w)
(1)'
For small S, equation (1)' will transform to equation
(1). Also, the total mass is equal to mr2d, where d
is the density, thus
- 2(k+k').
mr 20 0 1.
to
SAE = -
k (1 - e-S) [] - e
k+k'
2 (k+k') (t-to)
e
J
TTr2d
(9)'
Equation (9)' shows that SAE is related to the
inspection period to exponentially, also the effect
decays with time t exponentially, these are
experimentally verified by Eysenck and Holland (1960)
and by Stager & Burton (1964). Stager & Burton (1964)
also show that the constant, which in this model
would correspond to 2(k + k')/mr2d, increases
slightly with lessen the inspection period, this is
probabily due to the fact that with a shorter
inspection period, only a smaller area of the stimulus
may be covered by the field of attention (Chiang, 1973,
1976), thus r is smaller then it should, which
increases the constant. Equation (9)' also shows that
the SAE increases exponentially with the stimulus
angular velocity s, this is confirmed experimentally
by Mehling, Collins & Schroeder (1972). For a given
angular velocity, the linear speed of eliciting
motion in the retina is proportional to the size r or
the visual angle. By inspecting equation (9)', it
can be deduced that the period of SAE shows a peck
with r, indeed, experiments of Mehling, Collins &
Schroeder (1972) show this to be the case, It is
hoped that future experiments can be conducted in a
systematic way according to this equation such that
various effects and parameters may be estimated.
In summary, a dynamic perceptual model of
movement after-effect is proposed, quantitative
calculations from this model can be made and agree
with the existing data. The awaked state, hyponotic
state and the qusi-hyponotic state can also be defined
from this model. This model investigates into the
working mechanism within the brain and identifies
many parameters in a dynamic machinery, which would
help not only to the understanding of the brain, but
also to diagnosis the pathology of the damaged brain.
This model may also be used to build a more inteligent
machine which behaviours similarly to human being.
REFERENCES
1. Chiang, C. 1973. "A theory of Muller-Lyer illu-
sion", Vision Res., 13, 347-353.
2.
Chiang, C. 1975. "A theory of Pogendorff illu-
sion" Jap. Psychol. Res. 17, 111-118.
3. Chiang, C. 1976. "A theory of ambiguous pattern
perception", Bull. Math. Biol. 38, 491-504.
4. Eysenck, H. J. & H. Holland, 1960. "Length of
spiral after-effect as a function of drive."
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 11, 129-130.
5.
Mehling, K. D., W. E. Collins' and D. J. Schroeder.
1972. "Some effects of perceived size, retinal
size, and retinal speed on duration of spiral
after-effect". Perceptual and Motor skills,
34, 247-259.
6. Stager, P. & A. C. Burton. 1964.
"Graphic record-
ing of the spiral after-effect:
a study of its
magnitude and rate of decay." Canad. J.
Psychol. 18, (2), 118-125.
FIGURE LEGEND
Fig. 1. A flow chart of perception mechanism
of periodic movement.
Recognized
Follower
Detector
Periodic
Signals
Signals
Perceptual Space
Physical Space
Subjective
Controller
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507
w = =
ks
-[] - e
Je
m
k + k' '
SAF = 0 -
-
ks
k+k'
e

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THE EINSTEIN PARADOX
0. Costa de Beauregard
Institut Henri Poincaré, Paris, France
Intrinsic time symmetry plus (wavelike) addition
of partial amplitudes herald the advent of a new para-
digm, where advanced waves and information as orga-
nizing power are no less operational than retarded
waves and information as gain in knowledge.
I. Introduction
According to all dictionaries the meaning nº1,
or fundamental, of the word Paradox is: a surprising
but (perhaps ) true statement. Copernicus' heliocen-
trism has been a "paradox".
Such a paradox was also contained in Einstein's
Special Relativity. What Einstein did in 1905 was
neither discuss the mechanical theories of the ether,
nor elaborate new mathematics, but rather taylor the
conceptual frame after the (group property) of the
Lorentz-Poincaré formulas + faithfully expressing
the phenomenon of; no ether wind.
Today the situation is much the same, except
that the paradox shows up at the end of the story
rather than at its beginning. In 1927 Einstein, at
the 5th Solvay Council ", that is, over the very
cradle of the "New Quantum Mechanics", cast the mali-
gnant spell it is my duty to discuss today. Neither
he 3, nor later Schrodinger
4
", nor de Broglie ', nor
others, did believe the paradox to be the true,
Copernican
one, as we know now through experimen-
tation
6
In imitation of Einstein's 1905 approach I will
today neither discuss hidden variables theories and
Bell's theorem, nor will I fiddle with the mathe-
matics. No: just using the plain; well known mathe-
matics of the neoquantal mechanics of 1924-1927, and
purposely doing so in the simplest conceivable form,
as I deem appropriate for expressing a new paradigm -
for "unveiling the Sense of the Scriptures" - I will
show which ingrained natural belief is unambiguously
excluded by the experimental results on photon pairs
issuing from a cascade transition - very much like
the belief in an ether wind has been excluded by the
Michelson experiment. I will then proceed by unrave-
ling the statement written since long ago in the
accepted formulas, where nobody took the care to read
it, but where thei experiments now require us to do so.
The Sense of the Scriptures (as I will show) is
that the elementary stochastic event of quantum
mechanics, the transition, or collapse of the wave
function, does possess an intrinsic time symmetry -
as also did the collision in classical statistical
mechanics, where it gave rise to the famous Loschmidt
and Zermelo paradoxes. However, the Einstein -
1927
paradox (better known as the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen'
1935 paradox) is made much more severe than the old
ones through Born's replacement of the law of addition
of partial probabilities by the wavelike law of
addition of partial amplitudes, entailing the "neo-
quantal" correction expressed by the off diagonal
terms.
It is this combination of intrinsic time sym-
metry with a wavelike probability calculus which
causes the sting of the paradox, and which heralds
the advent of an ominous paradigm, where advanced
waves, and information as an organizing power, are
de jure symmetrical to retarded waves, and to infor-
mation as a gain in knowledge.
II. Correlation Polarizations in Atomic Cascades:
A Dramatic Experimental Result.
The "neoquantal" mechanical expression for the
probabilities of answers (yes, yes) and (no, no),
(yes, no) and (no, yes), when photon pairs issuing from
a cascade transition at C and propagating in opposite
directions along an axis x meet linear polarizers L
and N of relative angle a is, for the 0-1-0 type
cascade
<1,1> = < 0,0> = cos2x, <1,0> = < 0,1>= sin2a,
(1)
and, for the 1-1-0 type,
<1,1> = < 0,0> = > sina, (1,0> = < 0,1>=> costa.
(2)
Experimental verifications are excellent
6
Had these experiments been performed in the days
of the old "paleoquantal" mechanics, they certainly
would have produced the same sort of commotion as did
the Michelson experiment. They do require, in de
Broglie's
6
words, a radical revision of"our familiar
notions concerning space and time".
Consider for instance the case where Q= T/2
with the 0-1-0 cascades. The neoquantal prediction
<1,1> = O means that all the photon pairs are found
with linear polarizations parallel to either of the
two orthogonal directions y and z of the polarizers
L and N. This would have stupefied the paleoquantal
physicists, who thought of the photons of each pair
leaving the source C as possessing a polarization,
compatible of course with the dynamics of the system,
but essentially independent of the orientations A
and B of the polarizers (and even of their presence
or absence). In the 0-1-0 case these could have been
parallel linear polarizations with random directions,
or also, possibly, circular polarizations of equal
helicities. In any case the paleoquantal prediction
was, for a = T/2, that a large number of (yes, yes)
answers should occur. As a corollary, the sub-ensemble
of photon pairs with(parallel) linear polarizations
along y or z was thought to be of measure zero,
The experimental fact is just opposite:all the
observed photon pairs display this property, whence
necessarily the three following statements, heralding
the advent of a new paradigm:
1) The photons in each pair issuing from the source
C do not possess polarizations of their own, but
borrow one later, by interacting with the measuring
devices L and N.
This of course is a specification of a well
known general statement in the neoquantal mechanics,
of which perhaps there is no more direct experimental
proof than this one.
2) In the chance game which is played, the dice are
not cast at C when shaken in the cup, but later,
when rolling on the table, at L and N. They are,
however, correlated, and this is the Einstein
2
paradox, rejected by him 5, Schrödinger 4, de
Broglie ", but now experimentally demonstrated
a 6.
3) The correlation existing 0 between the distant
measurements at L and N is not tied, in space-time,
along the spacelike vector LN, which is physically
empty, but along the Feynman style zigzag LCN made
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of the two timelike vectors which are physically oc-
cupied. In other words, the two measurements at L and
N do produce the same wave collapse - in their common
past. Again in other words, Einstein's prohibition
to telegraph into the past does not hold at the
level of the quantal stochastic event, the wave
collapse, so this statement is of a "factlike"", or
macroscopic nature.
The quantal transition per se is essentially
time symmetric, just as was the collision in classical
statistical mechanics. However, the Einstein paradox
is much more severe than the "corresponding" Loschmidt
and Zermelo paradoxes, due to the wavelike character
of the neoquantal probability calculus, as will be
shown right now.
III. Neoquantal and Paleoquantal Calculations for
Atomic Cascades.
From the two (orthogonal) pure helicity states
L. L. and R. R. of a photon pair a, b, we build the
two (orthogonal) P-invariant states
글 (If+Bai)= 골(%+2 %),
(3)
(II -8명)= 클 2 Yo-Yoz],
(4)
where Y and Z denote the linear polarizations along
orthogonal axes y and z.
A and B denoting the angles with (say) y of the
linear polarizers L and N, and setting a = A - B, we
calculate now, using the neoquantal "golden rule" of
adding partial amplitudes and squaring their absolute
sum, the transition probabilities, first in terms of
circular, second of linear polarizations.
Turning analyzer L by AA 'and N by AB will shift
the relative phase of the L. L pair by ( say) +Ag
and then that of the R. R pair by -Ax. Thus the
partial amplitudes are, in terms of circular polari-
zations, 81º and e-1d, whence (for the 0-1-0 cascades)
<1,1> = < 0,0> = {leiareia|2 = {(1 + cos 20),
(5)
<1,0> = < 0,1> = leia _- ia|2 = {(1 - cos 2a).
(6)
Second, we use as orthogonal states the linear
polarizations Y and Z. The transition amplitudes
towards the (yes, yes) answer is cos A cos B for the
Yp state, sin A sin B for the Z. Z. state, cos A
sin B for the Y. Z state, and sin A cos B for the
Z. Y. state. Using the "golden rule" we recover
formulas (1) and (2) in the form
<1,1> = < 0,0> = = (cos A cos B + sin A sin B)2
= {(cos2A cos2B + sin2A sineB) + Esin 2A sin 2B
(7)
<1,0> = < 0,1> = (sin A cos B - cos A sin B)2
= (sin2 A cos2B+ coseA sin2B) - Isin 24 sin 2B.
(8)
In these formulas the contributions ( )/2 are the
paleoquantal predictions, assuming that the photon
pairs do leave the source as a statistical mixture
with(parallel) linear polarizations along y or z. The
contributions + ( sin. 2A sin, 2B)/4 are the neoquantal
corrections. Incidentally, neither of these contribu-
tions is rotation invariant around x. Thus the paleo-
quantal plysicist would have randomized his result,
which can be done most easily by writing
2 sin 2A sin 2B = cos. 2a - cos2(A + B), whence
<< 1,1>> = << 0,0>>
+ @ cos 2a ,
<< 1,0>> = << 0,1>> = 1 - @ cos 2a,
(9)
instead of (5) and (6).
So, while the neoquantal transition probabilities
are basis invariant, the paleoquantal ones are not.
The difference is due to the off diagonal terms, that
is, it stems from the wavelike nature of the neo-
quantal probability calculus. All this is well known
in general. So, the Einstein paradox is just one more
of the neoquantal extravagances.
IV. Neoquantal and Paleoquantal Correlations in General
The typical system under consideration is des-
cribed as a pure state Y expanded as a sum of partial
amplitudes
| > = Ec ; 1 6 ; 24 ; }
(10)
where ¢; and v; span independent Hilbert spaces. The
subsystems ¢; and 4; are thus coupled, although this
coupling may not be a "present" one - as in the case
we are discussing. By definition w. = c. c. and Ew .= 1.
A and B denoting the Hermitean operators of mea-
surements performed on o and v, the (basis invariant)
correlated mean value is
<Α,Β> = ΣΣ co c ;< Φ:|ΑΊΦ;> <ΨΑΝΒΙΨ;»
(11)
where, setting
<A=> = < 0|A|0;} ,
<B> = < 4 |B|V:>
(12)
the (non invariant) contributions of the diagonal and
off diagonal terms are respectively
<A,B> = {w ;< A;> <B;>
(13)
A<A,B> =;
2 i+j 1 ; < 01 | A|0; > <4; |B|4; > + c. c.
(14)
(13) is the paleoquantal expression, implying separate
statistics on the subsystems, and (14) the neoquantal,
or wavelike, correction.
A<A,B> = 0 in representations diagonalizing either
A or B, and then <A, B> assumes the expression <A, B>
of a mixture. But this is a semblance "relative" to
the frame - except of course if the corresponding
measurement is performed.
Formulas of Section III are specifications of
these.
V. The Essence of the Paradox
A little fable will help understand matters:
At midnight GMT two travellers leave the Calcutta
airport C, one for London L, one for Nagasaki N, each
carrying a closed box which contains, or not, the one
ball which a third man, in Calcutta, has enclosed,
behind a veil. Having landed at 6 GMT each traveller
opens his box, and immediately learns what the other
man finds.
The point is that, when made explicit, the
logical inference is not drawn along the spacelike
vector LN, but along the Feynman style zigzag LCN made
of the timelike vectors CL and CN.
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There is no paradox in this because we have a
"local hidden variable" with value 1 in one box and
O in the other. The die is cast at C, and we have
between L and N pure telediction with no teleaction.
This is the very point which is changed in the
"wavelike probability calculus". Observers at L and N
may wait until the very last moment before deciding
which of two"incompatible magnitudes" they will
measure - for instance, the linear polarization of
a photon along one of two directions of angle a.
Therefore it is at L and N that the die is cast
and, as there is a correlation, what we have between
L and N. is some sort of telediction plus teleaction.
V1. Relativistic Spinless Particles
Here is a short résumé of a fully relativistic
formalism I have presented elsewhere 9. Units such
that c = 1 and f = 1 are used; ) = 1,2,3,4; x4 = it.
The space-time \(x) and 4-frequency e (k) repre-
sentations of square integrable solutions of the
Klein-Gordon equation are associated with the
Hermitean scalar product
i
<a||b> =
2k
O [a ]un do
ΘΘε(k)dn.
(15)
'a'b'
The invariant o integral is over an arbitrary
spacelike surface 0 of (4-vector) element dot; [2 ]
denotes the Schrodinger or Gordon current operator
(difference of partial derivatives tothe right and
the left). The n integral is over both sheets of the
mass shell k,
k^ + k~ = 0, dn denoting the length of
dn^(k^dn = kdn^); s(k) = +1, -1, 0 according as k"
ends on the positive or negative frequency sheet, or
off shell. In Dirac's 10 notation
<&|b> = < a|x> <* |b> = < a|><k|b> ,
(16)
the double bar recalling that we are using a second
order equation. As usual, the condition <a| | b>=6(a, b)
defines orthonormality.
Introducing the Fourier nucleus
<x| k> = << | x>* = (2m) -3/2
exp(ik, x^)
(17)
if k^ ends on the mass shell, 0 otherwise, we write
the reciprocal Fourier transforms as
<x|a> = < x|> <* |a> , <k| a> = ‹| xxx| a>. (18)
Introducing the Jordan-Pauli propagator
<x||x'> = < x| |k> <k | |x'>
(19)
which is odd in x - x' and zero outside the light
cone, and such that
<x'|x"> = < x'|x> <x|x">
(20)
iff x' - x" is spacelike, and substituting the second
(18) in the first, we solve the Cauchy problem in the
form
{x' |a> = < x' | x> <x| a> .
(21)
This formula expands the wave function <x' a> at any
point instant x' upon the (complete) set of (orthogo-
nal) propagators with apexes x on a given o , the
coefficients of the expansion being the values <x a>
of <x' a> on 0. As <x' |x> and <k|x> are Fourier
reciprocal, the position operator in this formalism
is (given o) x^, and is faithfully represented by
x.
Two well known expressions of 2<x' | |x> are
2<x'||x> = D4- D_ = Dret- Pady .
(22)
The preceding reasoning shows that completeness of
the <x' k> and of the <x' ||x> are related to each
other, and that the presence of both positive and
negative frequencies in (18), and both retarded and
advanced waves in (21), are not independent from each
other.
VII. Relativistic Spinning Particles
An integrally equivalent expression of (15) is
<a|b> = i
2
a
a El
θε(k)and
(23)
with a = Y in the Dirac, =B, in the Petiau-Duffin-
Kemmer theory, etc ... The simple bar recalls that we
are using a system of first order equations. Modulo
this change all equations are formally the same as
in Section VI. The Fourier nucleus <x' |k> and the
Jordan-Pauli propagator <x' |x> now imply the projec-
tor projecting any solution of the Klein-Gordon
equation as a solution of the spinning particle
equation.
VIII. Intrinsic Time Symmetry of the Wave Collapse.
A New Paradigm.
The preceding formalism yields a fully relati-
vistic description of a position plus spin measure-
ment performed on a quantal particle, and one very
well suited for discussing the recent measurements
of correlations
6. I will avoid inessential wording
by conferring a very small rest mass to the photon,
so that it is true spinning particle, and that the
measurements performed at L and N are position plus
spin measurements.
The relativistic position measurement performed
"at an arbitrary spacelike surface o" (rather than
"at time t") consists in asking "does the particle
cross a given element do^ of o" (rather than" is it
inside dx dy dz"? The corresponding eigenfunction,
according to formula (21), is the Jordan-Pauli pro-
pagator <x' ||x> (rather than Dirac's 6(x' - x)), or
<x' |x> in a position-plus spin measurement, which
means that if the particle is found "at x" (in the
above sense) it certainly has come inside the past,
and will go inside the future light cone. This, of
course, is known since Minkowski - except that the
measurement at x does collapse the wave. And this
collapse, due to the very formalism, affects neces-
sarily both future (which is trivial) and past
(which, due to prejudice of macroscopic origin, was
overlooked).
This is the Einstein
2
paradox - and a truly
Copernican one indeed, as it is written down in the
very scriptures of the wavelike probability calculus
(especially in its explicitely relativistic
11
form)
and is experimentally verified
6
. This neither
+
Einstein
3
,
nor Schrodinger
, nor de Broglie , were
ready to believe, when stating respectively that it
would "imply telepathy", or "be magic", or upset
our "familiar conception of space and time".
It turns out that a measurement performed around
the point-instant x is potentially tied to the whole
universe - to the inside of the future and the past
light cones; also, to the outside of the light cone
via pairs of timelike vectors.
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Einstein's prohibition to "telegraph into the
past" was thus only of a factlike, or macroscopic
character. And his prohibition to telegraph outside
the light cone, though strictly valid12 in terms of
direct signalling, is overthrown nevertheless by the
possibility of zigzagging via timelike vectors, some-
what like a sailboat uses side wind.
IX. Macroscopic Factlike Asymmetry
In the Dirac electron theory there is a complete
lawlike symmetry between positive and negative energies,
that is, between particles and antiparticles. In fact,
however, the electron is as common as the positron is
exceptional - which, on the whole, is true also of
matter and antimatter.
Something similar occurs with retarded and advan-
ced waves - and, as we have seen, this question is
not unconnected with the preceding one.
The intrinsic symmetry between retarded and
advanced waves is tightly connected with two other
ones
13
which should now be mentioned.
In quantum mechanics, retarded and advanced waves
are respectively used for statistical prediction and
retrodiction, which shows that the intrinsic symmetry
between them is tied with that between entropy increa-
sing and decreasing processes (known as the Loschmidt
and Zermelo paradoxes). Then, the factlike preponde-
rance of retarded waves is tied with that of entropy
increase.
As information is another name for negentropy
(especially when chance is taken as a primitive concept,
as in quantum mechanics) the intrinsic symmetry we are
speaking of is also tied with that between information
as gain in knowledge (the common, trivial sense) and
information as an organizing power (the rare, esoteric
sense). Both sides are exemplified in reception and
emission of a phone conversation.
Now, very much like the esoteric antimatter does
make a few incursions inside our familiar world of
matter, and we know now where to look for it or how
to produce it, so we should inquire if perhaps the
esoteric finality, that is, advanced waves, decreasing
entropy, information as will, does not perhaps make
a few incursions inside our familiar world of causa-
lity. Let us call anti-physics the corresponding
context, physics obeying by definition the (factlike)
Irreversibility Law (Second Law). The point is, as
we have seen, that quantum physics does have, essen-
tially and symmetrically, one foot in physics and one
in antiphysics - just as it has one hand in positive
and one in negative frequencies.
The antiphysics context is the one which Einstein-
3-
has termed "telepathy", Schrodinger 4 "magic", de
Broglie ? the upsetting of "our familiar concept of
space and time". Parapsychology seems a good name for
it.
References
(1) These were known already by Larmor in 1898 and,
almost exactly, by Voigt in 1887.
(2) A. Einstein in Rapports du 5° Conseil Solvay,
Gauthier-Villars, 1928, p. 253-256.
(3) A. Einstein in Einstein Philosopher Scientist,
P.A. Schilpp ed. , The Library of Living Philoso-
phers, 1949, p. 85 and p. 683.
(4) E. Schrödinger, Naturwiss. 23, 844 (1935).See
p. 845.
(5) L. de Broglie, Interprétation Causale de la
Mécanique Ondulatoire, Gauthier Villars, 1956,
p. 73.
(6) S.J. Freedman and J.F. Clauser, Phys. Rev. Lett.
28, 938, 1972 ; J.F. Clauser, Phys. Rev. Lett. 36,
1223, 1976; E. Fry and R. L. Thompson, Phys. Rev.
Lett. 37, 465, 1976. See also M. Lamehi-Rachti
and W. Mittig, Phys. Rev. D 14, 2543, 1976; A.R.
Wilson, J. Lowe and D.K. Butt, J. Phys. G2, 613,
1976.
(7) A. Einstein, B. Podolsky and N. Rosen, Phys. Rev.
47, 777, 1935.
(8) H. Mehlberg's terminology in Current Issues in
the Philosophy of Science, H. Feigl and G. Maxwell
eds., Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1961.
(9) 0. Costa de Beauregard, Précis de Mécanique quan-
tique relativiste, Dunod, 1967.
(10) P.A.M. Dirac, Principles of Quantum Mechanics,
3rd. edition, Clarendon Press, 1947.
(11) For the connection with Feynman's formalism, see
0. Costa de Beauregard, Phys. Lett. 60A, 93, 1977.
(12) The discussion of tachyons is outside the scope
of this study.
(13) For more details, see 0. Costa de Beauregard,
Studium Generale 24, 10, 1971 where references
to the literature are given. See also Found. Phys.
6, 539, 1976.
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MULTIPLE SUBJECT AND LONG DISTANT PRECOGNITIVE REMOTE VIEWING OF GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS
J. P. Bisaha and B. J. Dunne*
Mundelein College, Chicago, Illinois 60660
ABSTRACT
An extension of earlier precognitive remote view-
ing experiments was conducted with two experimental
protocals: 1) using two subjects simultaneously
predicting where an experimenter would be 35 minutes in
the future, and 2) predicting over 24 hours into the
future over a distance of 5,000 miles. In the first
experiment seven trials were carried out with a total
of seven inexperienced volunteer subjects, tested in
pairs, to determine their ability to describe a remote
geographical location twenty minutes before the target
had been selected and thirty-five minutes before the
experimenter arrived at the randomly selected site.
Transcripts of subjects' descriptions were compared
against the seven targets and against each other by
six independent judges in a blind rank ordering
procedure. The results of this matching were: Group A
transcripts against tragets = p<0.005; Group B tran-
scripts against targets = p<0.01; Group B transcripts
against Group A transcripts p<0.005. Experiment two,
used one subject on five trials predicting 23.5 to 24.5
hours into the future where the experimenter would be
in Eastern Europe. Blind rank ordering of the
transcripts and photographs taken provided a results of
p <. 025. Further evidence of the widespread availability
of a perceptual/communication channel in which time
and distance appear to pose no barrier, is accessible
when ordinary modes of perception and communication
become inoperable, and can be "tuned into" by anyone
if they can separate the signal from the noise was
further substantiated.
INTRODUCTION
While the precognitive experience is a very old
one, experimentation in precognitive remote viewing
came about as a variation of the clairvoyant remote
viewing experiments, which demonstrated the ability
of isolated subjects to describe an unknown target
site at the same time the experimenter was visiting a
randomly selected location.1-2Successful experiments
of replication have been carried out not only in the
clairvoyant remote viewing4-6but also in the precog-
nitive remote viewing. 7
Over twenty laboratory experiments have been
conducted in our lab with more than ten subjects
involving the precognitive protocol. Each indicate a
subject's capability of not only describing scenes
accurately across spatial but also temporal barriers.
Since this ability seems to be a latent and wide-
ly distributed one, rather than an unusual talent of a
gifted few, and since the clairvoyant remote viewing
experiments have been so successful over long spatial
distances, two separate experimental protocols were
devised to expand on the original experiments. The
first protocol was a multiple precognitive experiment
involving two subjects, who simultaneously predicted
where the experimenter would be in the future. The
second protocol involved a long distance experiment
with the subject being required to predict 23-24 hours
in the future, where the experimenter would be over
5,000 miles away.
PROTOCOL ONE:
(MULTIPLE PRECOGNITIVE REMOTE VIEWING)
METHOD
Seven subjects, (two males and five females,
ranging in age from 24 to 37), were selected on a
volunteer basis and tested in four different subject
pairs. The subjects knew each other prior to the
experiment, but were not related by either blood or
marriage. The nature and protocol of the experiment
were explained to subjects before the trials began and
they were told that they would have sufficient time to
relax, make themselves comfortable, and allow their
minds to become as blank as possible. They were then
instructed to try and visualize where the experimenter
would be between 35 and 50 minutes after the trial
began and to describe whatever images or thoughts came
to mind during that 15 minute period aloud into a tape
recorder, and to make any sketches if they so desired.
Subjects were advised not to try to define specifically
or identify their impressions, but to describe them
generally with as much detail as possible, even if the
images appeared to make no sense or have no continuity.
The time at which the trial was to commence was agreed
upon by both subjects and experimenter, and subjects
were then separated with instructions to have no
communication with each other until after their parts
in the trial were over. In four trials the subjects
were in the same building, but in separate rooms on
different floors. There were observers stationed
with each subject in three of these trials. In the
remaining three trials, subjects were in different
locations, separated by approximately ten miles.
When subjects began generating their descriptions,
Table 1
Experimental Protocol
(Multiple Precognitive Remote Viewing)
10:00
Experimenter leaves with 10 envelopes containing target locations and begins 20 minute drive.
Subjects begin descriptions of where Experimenter will be between 10:35 and 10:50.
10:15
Subjects' responses completed, at which time laboratory part of experiment is over.
10:20
Experimenter generates random number between 1 and 10, counts down to associated envelope,
and proceeds to target location.
10:35
Experimenter arrives at target location and remains there for 15 minutes, taking photographs and notes.
10:50
Experimenter returns to point of origin. Experimental trial completed.
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an experimenter left the area with ten envelopes which
had been randomly selected from the target pool of over
one hundred locations in the city and suburbs of Chicago,
previously compiled and sealed by an individual who had
no other association with the experiment, (the contents
of which were unknown to either experimenter or
subjects) . Driving continuously for 20 minutes with no
particular direction, or until_ five minutes after the
subjects had completed their descriptions, the experi-
menter then blindly selected a number from one to ten
from an enclosed container holding ten numbered and
folded sheets of paper, counted down to the chosen
number of envelopes, opened the envelope and proceeded
to the location indicated on the enclosed card, arriving
at the target 15 minutes later, or 35 minutes after the
subjects began recording their descriptions. The
experimenter remained at the target for 15 minutes,
photographed the location and made notes as to her
impressions of the site, then returned to the point
of origin. (This protocol can be seen in Table 1). Typed
unedited transcripts were made of subjects' recorded
responses and attached to any associated drawings which
a subject may have made.
Seven trials of this sort were performed, resulting
in a set of seven photographs with accompanying notes,
and 14 transcripts which were randomly divided into two
sets so that each set contained one description for each
of the seven targets. The transcript sets were labeled
Group A and Group B. Six persons, not otherwise
affiliated with the experiment, were asked to be judges.
Two judges blind rank ordered Group A transcripts
against the target photographs and notes; two judges
blind rank ordered Group B transcripts against the
photographs and notes; and two judges blind rank
ordered Group A transcripts against Group B transcripts.
In this manner each judging procedure was independent
from the others, avoiding the possibilities of cueing
from one set of descriptions to the other, or fatique on
the part of the judges if they were required to match
all 14 transcripts. It also provided six seperate
sets of scores for evaluation from six spearate impartial
individuals. Each set of rankings was made on a scale
of one to seven; one being the best match and seven
being the worst. Seven was the lowest possible rank sum
for each set, 49 was the highest.
RESULTS
Statistical analysis of these results was performed
using Morris' method for evaluation preferentially
matched free-respone material. 8 The sums of the ranks
assigned by the two judges matching Group A transcripts
against the tragets were 15 and 13, with probability of
0.005. The sums of the ranks assigned by the two
judges matching Group B transcripts against the targets
were 15 in both cases, presenting a probability of 0.01.
The sums of the ranks assigned by the two judges
matching Group A and Group B transcripts were 12 and 14,
resulting in a probability of 0.002. Of the total of
42 matches which were made (six judges ranking seven
items) there was a total of 17 direct hits (matches
ranked as one) .
(See Tables 2 and 3) .
An indication of the accuracy of subjects'
descriptions, as well as the variation in individual
perception of a single remote target precognitively
viewed, can be offered by the following excerpts from the
transcripts, selected by the judges as best indicative
of the target. The degree of accuracy varied among
subjects, as did the specific details of the target.
Target 1: Plaza del Lago Shopping Center
The Target site was a shopping mall designed like
a Spanish courtyard or plaza, with a circular garden
area designed around a fountain, having paths leading
out in different directions. Two sides of the mall
consist of a series of low brick arches, the third side
is a row of low white buildings with awnings flanking
a taller structure with a tower. (See Figure 1) .
Group A (S4) -- "A few trees .. not really that big ..
there's like a fence around it, maybe a gate .. cement
or something to the left toward the front. . There's a
lot of white. . Everything seems to be very clean and
orderly."
Group B ($5) -- "Really tall building, some man-made
structure of brick or cement. Something rectangular
next to it. Is it one building or one next to it ?..
That rectangle is only one story high, I think. The
other building is much taller. The tall part might
be round, there are lots of parts to it ... I see
sidewalks, paths go around it .. Some trees, other
buildings can be seen through the trees .. There's a
Table 2
Ranks Assigned by Judges Matching Subjects' Transcripts Against Targets in Precognitive Remote Viewing Trials
Target
(Subjects)
Ranks Assigned
A
B
Group A
Group B
Judge 1.
Judge 2
Judge 1
Judge 2
Plaza del Lago
($4, S5)
1
5
4
2
Wrigley Field
($10,89)
1
1
3
2
Techny Mission
(54) S5)
3
I
1
3
Lindheimer Obs.
($6, 87)
2
3
1
3
Madonna del Strada (S5, S4)
3
1
2
2
NWRR Station
($6, 5g)
2
1
3
1
Grant Park Bandshell (S7, S6)
3
1
I
2
Sum of Ranks
1.5
13
15
15
Statistical Significance
P<0.01 p<0.005
P< 0.01
P<0.01
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Table 3
Ranks Assigned By Judges Matching Transcripts B Against Transcripts A in Precognitive Remote Viewing Trials
Transcipt
Ranks Assigned
Judge L
Judge 2
A-1 (Wrigley Field)
2
2
A-2 (Madonna del Strada Chapel)
2
3
A-3 (Lindheimer Observatory)
1
1
A-4 (Grant Park Bandahe11)
1
1
A-5 (Plaza del Lago)
1
1
A-6 (Techny Mission)
2
2
A-7 (Northwestern Railroad Station, Glencoe)
3
4
Sum of Ranks
12
14
Statistical Significance
double doorway, double doors with an awning .. Maybe the
tall building is;on top of it, or next to it. . There's a
circular pathway with grass in front."
Target 6: Northwestern Railroad Station, Glencoe
The target was a small, dark brick building with
a pointed roof and circular turret. Two sets of tracks
in front of the building. During the 15-minute
experimental period two trains passed, one of which
stopped. Experimenter went inside the station for a
few minutes, noted wooden floors, benches and a train
schedule posted on one wall. The station was surrounded
by trees in a park-like setting. (See Figure 2) .
Group A (S6) -- "I have an image of looking at the
traffic and seeing it go by really fast, speeding cars
.. I see a train station .. I see a train coming .. older
buildings .. trees .. See just the front end of the
train station. See a little bit within it, unless they
are planks. Wooden planks on the floor .. There are
posters or something, advertisements or posters on the
wall of the train station .. I see the benches .. I see the
tracks."
Group B (S8) -- "There are lines pointing in several
different directions .. There's a round-like disk ..
it might be the sun on it, might be like a big light ..
It feels like, looks like, feels that things are blowing
the wind is blowing and everything is like blowing in
the same direction .. There's something rising. . it's sort
p < 0.001
P < 0. 005
of blowing upward, maybe things are swirling."
PROTOCOL TWO: (LONG DISTANCE PRECOGNITIVE REMOTE VIEWING)
METHOD
As a further investigation into the parameters of
precognitive remote viewing phenomena, a series of five
trials were conducted between the Midwestern, U.S.A.
and Eastern Europe over a consecutive five day period
in August 1976.
Each morning between 8:30 and 8:45 A.M., Central
Daylight Time, the Subject in the U.S. attempted to
describe the geographical location where the Experimenter
would be in Eastern Europe up to 5,284 miles away. The
descriptions were tape recorded each morning and
subsequently transcribed. The Experimenter was to spend
the 15 minute period between 3:00 and 3:15 P.M.
attempting to concentrate on his surroundings and taking
a photograph which could later be compared against the
subject's descriptions. (This is shown in Table 3) .
Upon his return, the Experimenter presented the
five photographs and brief descriptions of the five
target sites in random order to the Subject for matching
in the blind rank ordering procedure followed in previous
experiments. 7 The Subject gave the Experimenter copies
of the transcribed descriptions, also in random order for
the Experimenter to match against the targets.
In
addition, a third person, who had no connection with the
:
:
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514
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Figure 2. Northwestern Railroad Station (Target 6 in Multiple Precognitive Remote Viewing Experiment) .
Table 4
Experimental Protocol
Long Distance Precognitive Remote Viewing
Day 1 8:30 A.M. (CDT)
Subject in Midwest, U.S.A.
begins description of where
3:30 P.M. (Europe)
experimenter will be 23.5. hrs.
in the future in Bratislava,
Czechslovakia or 24.5 hrs. in
the future in Moscow, U.S.S.R.
Day 2 3:00 P.M. (Europe) Experimenter stops at what-
ever location he is at for
fifteen minutes, and takes a
photograph of target to
compare with predicted location.
experiment, was also asked to blind rank order the
photographs against the descriptions.
RESULTS
These procedures resulted in three independent
sets of scores which were analyzed according to Morris'
method for evaluation preferentially matched free-
response material.8 The three sets of ranking were
significant at .04 in two cases and .05 in one. (See
Table 4). . Again, two experiments have been selected
to show the accuracy of the transcripts in prediction.
TARGET 1: DANUBE RIVER (BRATISLAVA, CZECHSLOVAKIA)
The target was a "flying saucer" restaurant, a
circular building raised high into the air on heavy
pillars above a bridge near the bank of the Danube
river. The subject described the experimenter as being
"near water . . . a very large expanse of water
boats . . . vertical lines like poles
.
a circular
shape like a merry-go-round or gazebo
it seems to
have height, maybe with poles . . . a dark fence along
a walk . . . at the top of the steps, like a path or
walkway . .
. a boardwalk and there's a fence along it."
(See Figure 3).
TARGET 5: EXHIBITION OF ECONOMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF U.S.S.R.
(MOSCOW, U.S.S.R.)
The target was a huge park with many fountains,
flowerbeds, and buildings. The Experimenter stood
looking through the entrance which was a huge archway
with a black metal fence. The Subject's transcript
reads as follows: "Lots of different shapes, activity,
buildings. . Gate or fence.made of metal of some sort ..
high for a gate .. dark metal .. People walking. . Something
round circular .. light color stone .. slab on a stand ..
a bench or table .. something like a row of doorways ..
some sort of fountain in circular shape .. Cultivated
flowers around in beds." (See Figure 4) .
Table 5
Ranks Assigned by Judges Matching Targets to Transcripts in Long Distance Precognitive Remote Viewing
Target
Approx. Distance
Time
in
Future
Experimenter's
Ranking
Subject's
Ranking
Independent
Judge
Danube River
(Bratislava, Czechslovakia
5,087 miles
23.5 hrs.
1
1
A
St. Michael's Church
5,087 miles
23.5 hrs.
2
2
3
(Bratislava, Czechslovakia)
Hotel Ukraine
(Moscow, U.S.S.R. )
5,284 miles
24.5 hrs.
1
1
2
Tretyakov Gallery
(Moscow, U.S.S.R. )
5,284 miles
24.5 hrs.
2
3
2
Exhibition of Economic
Achievement of U.S.S.R.
(Moscow, U.S.S.R.)
5,284 miles
24.5 hrs.
2
1
1
Sum of Ranks
8
8
9
Statistical Significance
p.2.025
p:4.025
Pr2.05
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Figure 3. Danube River, Bratislava, Czechslovakia,
(Target 1 in Long Distance Experiment) .
Figure 4. Exhibition of Economic Achievement of the
U.S.S.R., Moscow, U. S.S. R. (Target 5 in Long Distance
Experiment.
DISCUSSION
The significant results of these two separate
protocols lend further support to the hypothesis that
the extrasensory channel of communication and/or
perception utilized in remote viewing is a widespread
and relatively common faculty which can be exercised
without extensive training or experience when the
enviornmental conditions are favorable. Distance and
time appear to pose no barriers to its effectiveness.
These findings are in keeping with those of
previous studies testing remote viewing in individuals
or group settings, and provide evidence that even the
precognitive aspect of this phenomenon operates on an
open channel which can be "tuned into" by a variety of
"consoles" with differing genetic structures. Although
there was enough information in each transcript to
provide a significant cross correspondence between
subjects on the same target, no telepathic indication can
be deduced in the multiple precognitive remote viewing
experiment. The reports of the subjects in each pair
differed enough to make it obvious that, while both
subjects were perceiving the same target, the perceptions
reflected individual differences in cognitive processing
of information and interpretation. The significant
correlation between A and B is not indicative of a
seperate channel of communication between the subjects;
but rather supports the hypothesis that two seperate and
effective channels appear to operate simultaneously
between each subject and target and/or experimenter and
target.
The long distance precognitive experiment demonstrated
the capability of an individual to also extend this ability
over great spatial distances as well as temporal distances
of over one 24 hour period. Although the degree of
significance of this experiment is not as great as had
been found in other precognitive remote viewing
research, the results are still well above chance
expectation and provide further substantiation to the
existance of this ability. Furthermore, the results
are indicative of the great latitude of the parameters
of the remote viewing experience, parameters which have
not previously been tested to these extremes of time
and distance. The ability appears to function as well
over large time and space differentials as it does when
the target is within a 35 minute, local distance.
The principle factor which appears to be operating
under the conditions of these experiments is a situation
where normal modes of rational thought or communication
are inoperable, thus reducing the internal noise and
external stimuli to permit the weaker signal to be
distinguished. Subjects have discovered (particularly
those who have performed more than one trial) that they
are capable of screening out the noise, cognitive and
sensory, and perceiving the information being trans-
mitted, inspite of the logical impossibility of such an
accomplishment. When subjects are given permission to
explore their psychic abilities in an enviornment where
those abilities are the only possible ones which can
produce results, they discover that such abilities do
exist and are relatively reliable.
The positive results obtained form the various
experiments attempted to date, indicate that the protocol
of this design is a useful and effective one for addition-
al research into the nature of non-ordinary information
transfer.
REFERENCES
1. R. Targ and H.Puttoff, "Information transfer under
conditions of sensory shielding, "Nature, vol. 252,
pp. 602-607, October 18, 1974.
2,
H. Puthoff and R. Targ, "A Perceptual channel for
information transfer over kilometer distances: Histor-
ical perspective and recent research, " Proc. IEEE,
vol, 64, pp. 329-354, March 1976.
3.
R. Targ and H. Puthoff, Mind-Reach, N. Y. : Delecorte
Press, 1977.
4. A. Hastings and D. Hurt, "A confirmatory remote
viewing in a group setting," Proc. IEEE, vol., 64,
October 1976.
5. T. Whitson, D. Bogart, J. Palmer , and C. Tart, "Preliminary
experiments in group remote viewing, " Proc. IEEE, vol.
64, October 1976.
6. J. Vallee, "A. Hastings, and G. Askevold, "Remote viewing
experiments through computer conferencing, " Proc. IEEE.
vol. 64, October 1976.
7. J. Bisaha and B. Dunne, "Percognitive remote viewing
in the Chicago area, a replication of the Stanford
experiment," Research in Parapsychology 1976,
Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press INC. (In Press)
8.
R.Morris, "An exact method for evaluating preferen-
tially matched free-response material," J. American
Soc. Psychical Res.vol 66, p. 401, Oct. 1972.
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RESPONSE SENSITIVITY OF HUMAN SUBJECTS TO ELF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS:
CRITICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR TWO ELF MODELS OF PARANORMAL BEHAVIORS
Michael A. Persinger, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Psychology
Environmental Psychophysiology Lab
Laurentian University
Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Summary. The potential role of ELF (extremely
low frequency) electromagnetic fields in the mediation
of alleged paranormal behaviors or remote viewing is
considered. Two models have emerged to conceptualize
the relationships between the agent-object (A), the
percipient (P) and the geophysical-mediator (G). A
type 1 interaction involves a direct A-G-P relation-
ship by which information associated with A directly
modifies G that influences P. A type 2 interaction
requires G to operate only as a discriminative sti-
mulus, conditioned stimulus or "trigger", independent-
ly, to A and P with shared reinforcement (experience)
histories. The latter model requires little informa-
tion transfer by the ELF-G factor since the detailed
sequences are a consequence of A and P's shared con-
ditioning in the presence of G. The available data
concerning response sensitivity of human subjects to
small changes in ELF field frequencies and intensities
are discussed.
An essential problem for scientists concerned
with the explanation and description of alleged tele-
1
2
pathic-clairvoyant (T-C) behaviors" or remote viewing
is the mechanism by which information traverses some
point A to some point B without using conventional
sense modes or stimulus sources. Since alleged T-C
behaviors involve long distances and opaque boundaries
between the putative agent and percipient, the basic
natural mechanisms which satisfy the conditions of a
T-C mediator candidate"
are limited. Puthoff and
4
5
0
Targ , Kogan , Bentov" and Persinger' have suggested
naturally produced ELF (extremely low frequency)
electric and magnetic fields as one means by which
paranormal information could be mediated. The physi-
cal and biologically relevant characteristics of
these signals are reported in ELF and VLF Electroma-
gnetic Field Effects.
7
At present, there are two models developed to
conceptualize the relationships between the agent or
object (A) the percipient or reporter (P) and the
geophysical-meteorological mediator (G). A type 1
interaction would be a simple A-G-P relationship by
which information from A modifies or is coded onto G
and influences P some time and distance later. A
type 2 interaction would be another example of a
"third factor theory" whereby G would influence A and
P separately at about the same time. Since G would
not be apparent to either A or P, the conclusion of a
direct A-P interaction would be likely but inaccurate.
The two models require different demands from
ELF signals. A type 1 interaction requires direct
information coding upon the ELF signal. Although the
amount of information would be small considering the
typical bit rate, such difficulties could be attenua-
ted theoretically by: (1) increasing the exposure
time to the ELF signal or by (2) "closure effects"
displayed by P. More critical features would be:
(1) the increment of time the agent-object could main-
tain ELF coding and (2) P's neural capacity to differ-
entiate and "understand" the signals.
A type 2 interaction does not require acute co-
ding or modification procedures but instead requires
the operation of learning/conditioning. This interac-
tion assumes that A and P have shared reinforcement
histories (shared experiences) in the presence of G
(some specific ELF signal). In this situation, later
presentation of G would initiate both the alleged
"transmitted information" in A and the paranormal res-
ponses in P independently. The basic operation would
involve elementary learning principles such that the G
factor becomes a conditioned stimulus or a discrimina-
tive stimulus. G, per se, would contain little infor-
mation, rather it would behave as a "trigger" to evoke
the changes in the two organisms involved. The effect
would be similar to the cascading series of intense
private responses ( "thoughts"), visceral changes and
biochemical alterations in a person who has been puni-
shed in the presence of a four-letter curse word; the
word itself (before the conditioning) would involve
little energy and information.
Within this model, the "same" ELF characteristics
associated with some environmental event, e.g., geo-
magnetic storm, earth-ionospheric perturbation, could
influence hundreds of different A:P pairs in different
ways. The crucial behavioral operation is a history
of shared response displays by individual A:Ps in the
presence of the ELF stimulus. An attractive feature
of this model involves elimination of the cumbersome
"time factor". Since the G factor elicits changes in
the A and P independently, traditional designations of
agent and percipient would be irrelevant since tempor
ral relationships (including apparent precognition)
reflect only response latencies to the field's presen-
ce.
From a behavioristic perspective, the role of "a-
wareness" and related verbal behaviors is not an essen-
tial factor in the ELF models. ELF signals could eli-
cit a number of pervasive response sequences within
the human organism without involving private responses.
Conditioning without the role of "awareness" has been
demonstrated in the laboratory many times, e.g., co-
vert responses. Depending upon the reinforcement his-
tory, the subject may suddenly display particular res-
ponse sequences or if the associations had been aver-
sive, show diffuse characteristics of "anxiety". If
other response systems were involved, the display of
"awareness" behavior during the signal presentation
could actually interfere with the organism's total
response. Situations described metaphorically as
"mind wandering" (low level private responses) would
be more optimal for efficient ELF signal responding.
The key to the ELF theory lays in the empirical
verification of ELF-EM associated organismic changes.
The degree to which ELF electromagnetic fields signi-
ficantly influence living systems is still a matter
of controversy. Investigation groups (e.g., Committee
on Biosphere Effects of ELF Radiation of the Assembly
of Life Sciences, Washington, D.C.) and academics are
still debating the practical nature of these changes.
Review of the behavioral-biological effects of ELF
7, 8
fields have been reported elsewhere.
Significant
organismic changes in the presence of ELF electroma-
gnetic fields have been reported in more than one
hundred experiments involving human and non-human ani-
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mals; however, frankly, the absolute effects have
been quite small and are not always consistent.
In addition, systematic determination of frequen-
cy-,intensity- or wave shape-dependence functions
have not been completed. The number of ELF-EM incre-
mental characteristics within either amplitude, fre-
quency, rise time, peak time or wave trains, that the
human organism can discriminate as different is un-
known. Such discrimination is required, especially
for a Type 1 interaction model, unless one assumes a
0,1 detection mechanism but this would require an
organismic capacity to distinguish temporal patterns.
Some evidence exists that human subjects can respond
differentially to ELF parameters.
Forty minute exposures to either 3 Hz or 10 Hz
electric fields of either 0.3 V/m or 3 V/m did not
significantly alter reaction time in 70 human male
and female subjects";
however, weak changes in varia-
bility of response latencies were apparent. On the
10
other hand, Konig , quoting Hamer's work and his own
results (with smaller groups of subjects) argues that
human reaction time is altered by: (1) the presence
or absence of 4 Hz and 10 Hz electric fields and (2)
frequency shifts of only 1 Hz at the field strengths
of 2 mV/50 cm. ! However, Konig did not apply systema-
tic statistics to these results. Friedman, Becker
and Bachman
11
exposed more than 70 male and female
subjects to sinusoidally modulated magnetic fields
between 5 x 104T and 1.7 x 10-3T.
Shifts in field
frequency of only 0.1 Hz (from 0.1 Hz to 0.2 Hz) were
sufficient to significantly alter reaction time. The
effects were facilitated by using each subject as his/
her own control. These data indicate that small
shifts in field frequency alter simple reaction time
in human subjects. However the effects are weak and
involve significant overlaps in standard deviations
between field parameters.
Different response systems, such as the visceral,
somatic, biochemical or vascular matrices, may dis-
play differential sensitivity and susceptibility to
low level, natural ELF field effects. Reaction time,
correlated primarily with gross pyramidal tract
features, may not be as sensitive as (for example)
vascular or visceral (emotional) changes that are not
required to be highly correlated with "awareness" or
12
"voluntary" responses. Ludwig and his colleagues
have reported significant alterations in headaches
and related vascular complaints in the presence of
ELF magnetic fields. However, with the exception of
13
non-human animal studies, e.g., Reille- , who repor-
ted conditioned heart rate changes in pigeons exposed
to 10 T magnetic fields between 0.2 Hz to 0.5 Hz and
not between 300 Hz and 500 Hz, little research has
been conducted with these potentially responsive
sytems. Alterations in such systems could still modi-
fy "awareness behavior" (if sufficiently intense) or
influence dream sequences. More detailed analyses of
the ELF models and problems of human behavior in the
context of paranormal stimuli have been reported
elsewhere.
14, 15
References
1. M.A. Persinger,
The Paranormal: Part II Mecha-
nisms and Models.
New York: M.S.S. Information,
1974.
2. Russel Targ| and Harold Puthoff, Mind-Reach.
New
York: Delacorte Press, 1977.
3.
M.A. Persinger, "Geophysical Models for para-
psychological experiences", Psychoenergetic
Systems, 1975, 1, 63-74.
4. Harold Puthoff and Russel Targ, "A perceptual
channel for information transfer over kilometer
distances: historical perspective and recent re-
search", Proc. IEEE, 1976, 64, 329-354.
5. I.M. Kogan, "Is telepathy possible?" Radio Eng.,
1967, 21, 75.
6. I. Bentov, Stalking the Wild Pendulum. New York:
E.P. Dutton, 1977.
7. M.A. Persinger (Ed. ), ELF and VLF Electromagnetic
Field Effects. New York: Plenum Press, 1974.
8.
M.A. Persinger, H.W. Ludwig and K-P. Ossenkopp,
"Psychophysiological effects of extremely low fre-
quency electromagnetic fields: a review", Per-
ceptual and Motor Skills, 1973, 36, 1131-1159.
9. M.A. Persinger, G.F. Lafreniere and D.N. Mainprize,
"Human reaction time variability changes from low
intensity 3-Hz and 10-Hz electric fields: inter-
actions with stimulus pattern, sex and field in-
tensity", International Journal of Biometeorology,
1975, 19, 56-64.
10. H.L. Konig, "Biological effects of extremely low
frequency electrical phenomena in the atmosphere.
Journal of Interdisciplinary Cycle Research, 1971,
2, 317-323.
11.
Howard Friedman, Robert 0. Becker and Charles H.
Bachman, "Effect of magnetic fields on reaction
time performance", Nature, 1967, 213, 949-956.
12. W. Ehrmann, H. Letiner, W. Ludwig, M.A. Persinger,
W. Sodtke and R. Thomas, "Therapie mit ELF-Ma-
gnetfeldern", Zeitschrift für Physikalische Medi-
zin, 1976, 5, 161-170.
13. A. Reille, "Essai de mise en évidence d'une sen-
sibilité du pigeon au champ magnétique à l'aide
d'un conditionnement nociceptif", Journal of
Physiology (Paris), 1968, 60, 85-92.
14. M.A. Persinger, "The problems of human verbal
behavior: the final reference for measuring os-
tensible psi phenomena", The Journal of Research
in PSI Phenomena, 1976, 1, 72-90.
15.
M.A. Persinger, "ELF field mediation in sponta-
neous psi events: direct information transfer or
conditioned elicitation?" Psychoenergetic Sys-
tems (in press) .
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STATE OF THE ART IN REMOTE VIEWING STUDIES AT SRI
Russell Targ, Harold E, Puthoff and Edwin C. May
Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, California 94025
ABSTRACT
For the past five years we have been investigating
aspects of human perception that appear to fall out-
side the range of well-understood perceptual/processing
capabilities. Of particular interest is a human infor-
mation-accessing capability that we call "remote view-
ing." This phenomenon pertains to the ability of
certain individuals to access and describe, by means of
mental processes, remote geographical locations up to
several thousand km distant from their physical loca-
tion given only a known person on whom to target 1-4
In this paper we concentrate on recent transconti-
nental experiments carried out with individuals whose
remote perceptual abilities have been developed suf-
ficiently to allow them to describe -- often in great
detail -- geographical or technical material such as
buildings, roads, structures, natural formations, along
with real-time activities of persons at the target
site. These experiments, together with our previously
established data base of over 50 local (< 20 km) ex-
periments, indicate that (1) although the information
channel is imperfect, the data generated by the remote
viewing process exceeds any reasonable bounds of chance
correlation, and (2) the extent of physical distance
separating the subject from the target site up to
transcontinental distances does not appear to signifi-
cantly affect the accuracy of perception.
INTRODUCTION
In our discussion of the state of the art of re-
mote viewing studies at SRI we take as our data base
the 51 experiments described in Reference 2 (local
remote viewing with targets ~ 20 km) plus five cross-
country experiments (some with multiple subjects) de-
scribed in Reference 4 and amplified here. In these
experiments we have investigated an often-reported
human perceptual ability that has heretofore not been
widely investigated in the laboratory. This ability we
term "remote viewing." It is an ability by which human
subjects perceive, and describe by word and drawing,
distant scenes and activities blocked from ordinary
perception. We have found that subjects have been able
to describe with equal accuracy scenes at both local
sites ( that is, within a few miles) and those at trans-
continental distances. These abilities are developed
in several individuals sufficiently to allow them to
describe -- often in considerable detail -- geographical or
technical material such as buildings, roads, interior
laboratory apparatus, and real-time activities.
As observed in the laboratory, the basic phenome-
non appears to cover a range of subjective experiences
variously referred to in the literature as autoscopy
(in the medical literature); exteriorization or dis-
association (psychological literature) ; simple clair-
voyance, traveling clairvoyance, or out-of-body ex-
perience (parapsychological literature); or astral pro-
jection (occult literature). We choose the term "re-
mote viewing" as a neutral descriptive term free from
prior associations and bias as to mechanisms.
EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH
Description of the Protocol (Local Targets)
We begin with a synopsis of the basic data base of
51 local remote viewing experiments.2
The general pro-
tocol is to closet a subject with an experimenter at
SRI and at a prearranged time to obtain from the sub-
ject a description of an undisclosed, remote site being
visited by a target team, one of whose members is known
to the subject and who thereby constitutes the target
person. The target team is assigned their target loca-
tion by an independent experimenter who has generated a
list of targets located within a 30-minute driving time
from SRI, and who accesses this list by a randomization
procedure. The target pool consists of more than 100
target locations chosen from a target-rich environment.
The target location selected is kept blind to both the
subject and experimenter closeted at SRI. The experi-
ment is thus of the double-blind type.
In detail: To begin an experiment, a subject is
closeted with an experimenter at SRI and instructed to
wait 30 minutes before beginning a narrative description
of where the target team has gone. Meanwhile, the tar-
get team obtains sealed traveling orders from a monitor
who has previously prepared and randomized a set of
such orders. After leaving SRI by automobile, the tar-
get team opens the traveling orders and proceeds di-
rectly to the target without any communication with the
subject or experimenter remaining at SRI. The experi-
menter remaining with the subject in the SRI laboratory
is kept ignorant of both the particular target and the
target pool so as to eliminate the possibility of cue-
ing (overt or subliminal) and to allow him freedom in
questioning the subject for clarification of his de-
scriptions. The target team remains at the target site
for a prearranged 15-minute period following the 30
minutes alloted for travel. During the observation
period, the remote viewing subject at SRI is asked to
describe his impressions of the target site into a tape
recorder and to make any drawings he thinks appropri-
ate. A tentative evaluation is made of the subject's
output when the target team returns to SRI. Finally,
following the experiment, the subject is taken to the
site so that he may obtain direct feedback.
Initial Experimental Series
To give a concrete example, we summarize the re-
sults obtained with the first subject on the local re-
mote viewing series. This subject (designated here as
S1) participated in nine experiments. Subject S1 came
to our experiments with a reported history of spontane-
ous remote viewing experiences. In general, the sub-
ject's ability in our experiments to describe correctly
buildings, docks, roads, gardens, and the like, includ-
ing structural materials, color, ambience, and activ-
ity -- sometimes in great detail -- indicated the function-
ing of a remote perceptual ability. A Hoover Tower
target, for example, was recognized and correctly named.
Nonetheless, the descriptions generally contained inac-
curacies as well as correct statements. A typical ex-
ample is indicated by his drawing shown in Figure 1 in
which the subject correctly described a park-like area
containing two pools of water: one rectangular, 60 X
89 ft (actual dimensions 75 x 100 ft); the other cir-
cular, diameter 120 ft (actual diameter 110 ft). As
can be seen from his drawing, the subject also included
some elements, such as the tanks shown in the upper
right, that are not present at the target site. We
also note an apparent left-right reversal, often ob-
served in paranormal perception experiments.
Further, the subject incorrectly indicated the
function of the site as water purification rather than
recreational swimming. We often observe essentially
correct descriptions of basic elements and patterns
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AVE.
THINK
TENNIS COURTS
ELECT.
DIST.
THOR'S
75
110
100
PLAY
GROUNDS
POOL HOUSE
CONCRETE BLOCK
SERVICE
YARD
SEMLE YARD
SALES Of WATER - SPRAY
Bin Dow Effects
FIRE
STATION
10005
PICNIC AREA /
RD.
SUN L
0
n
(à)
City map of target location
(b)
Drawing by Subject S1
FIGURE 1
SWIMMING POOL COMPLEX AS REMOTE VIEWING TARGET
coupled with incomplete or erroneous analysis of func-
tion. This theme emerged as a thread which continued
throughout our work and eventually led to a break-
through with regard to an understanding of the inter-
relationship between paranormal perception and cere-
bral. functioning, namely: that paranormal functioning
may involve specialization characteristic of the
brain's right hemisphere, which predominates in spatial
and other holistic processing, in contrast to the left
hemisphere which predominates in verbal and other ana-
lytical functioning 5-7
Judging of Results
To obtain a numerical evaluation of the accuracy
of the remote viewing experiment, the experimental re-
sults were subjected to independent judging on a blind
basis by an SRI research analyst not otherwise associ-
ated with the research. The response packets, which
contained the nine typed, unedited transcripts of the '
tape-recorded narratives and associated drawings, were
unlabeled and presented in random order. Working
alone, the analyst visited each target location in turn
and in a blind fashion rated the subject's descriptions
on a scale 1 to 9 (best to worst match). The statistic
of interest is the sum of ranks assigned to the target-
associated transcripts, lower values indicating better
matches. For nine targets, the sum of ranks could
range from nine (for perfect matching) to eighty-one.
The technique for calculating the probability that a
given sum of ranks s or less will occur by chance is
given in Reference 2. The results of the judging,
shown in Table 1, included seven direct hits out of the
nine. The overall
result was statistically significant
at p = 2.9 x 10->
Table 1 also indicates the various
types of targets used in this series. Further, in ex-
periments 3, 4, and 6-9, the subject was secured in a
double-walled copper screen Faraday cage, which pro-
vides 120-dB attenuation for plane-wave radio-frequency
radiation over the range of 15 kHz to 1 GHz. The re-
sults of rank-order judging indicate that the use of
such shielding does not prevent high-quality descrip-
tions from being obtained. .
Replication Series
Having completed this initial series of experi-
ments, we concluded that remote viewing appeared to be
both a real and a robust phenomenon. We then carried
Table 1
DISTRIBUTION OF RANKINGS ASSIGNED TO TRANSCRIPTS
ASSOCIATED WITH EACH TARGET LOCATION FOR SUBJECT S1
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
Hoover Tower, Stanford
3.4
1
Baylands Nature
Preserve, Palo Alto
6.4
1
Radio telescope,
Portola Valley
6.4
1
Marina, Redwood City
6.8
1
Bridge toll plaza,
Fremont
14.5
6
Drive-in theatre,
Palo Alto
5.1
1
Arts and Crafts Plaza,
Menlo Park
1.9
1
Portola Valley
8.5
3
Swimming pool complex,
Palo Alto
3.4
1
Total sum of ranks
16
(p=2.9×10-5)
out replication experiments with other subjects (the
results of which are given in detail in Reference 2)
until we had established a data base of 51 experiments.
A summary tabulation of the statistical evaluations of
these 51 experiments (with nine subjects) is presented
in Table 2. Of the six studies, involving remote view-
ing of natural targets or laboratory apparatus, five
reached statistical significance. The overall results,
evaluated conservatively on the basis of a judging pro-
cedure that ignored transcript quality beyond that
necessary to rank order the data packets (vastly under-
estimating the statistical significance of individual
descriptions), clearly indicated the presence of an
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Table 2
SUMMARY :
REMOTE VIEWING OF LOCAL TARGETS
Subject
Number of
Experiments
p-Value, Rank
Order Judging
With natural targets
S1
9
2.9 X 10-5
S2 and S3 (four each)
8
8
3.8 × 10-4
S4
9
1.8 × 10-6
S5 and S6 (four each)
8
85
5
0.08 (NS)
V1 and V2 (three; two)
0,017
With technology targets
$2, 83, S4, V2, V3
12
0.036
information channel of useful bit rate. The descrip-
tions supplied by the subjects although containing
inaccuracies, were sufficiently accurate to permit
the judges to differentiate (blind) among various tar-
gets to the degree that roughly 50% of the transcripts
were directly matched.2
LONG-DISTANCE REMOTE-VIEWING EXPERIMENTS
General
After establishing the data base of 51 remote-
viewing experiments with local targets (sites within a
few kilometers), we undertook a series of five experi-
ments designed to determine whether an increase in
subject-target separation to transcontinental distances
would degrade the quality or accuracy of perception. A
major motivation for this effort was the desire to
begin to accumulate data to examine various hypotheses,
e.g., whether remote viewing is mediated by extremely
low-frequency (ELF) electromagnetic waves.
Under
simple forms of this hypothesis, one would expect a
degradation in accuracy as the subject-target_
g_distance
is increased to several thousand kilometers.
As a secondary goal, we were interested in the
real-time data rate -- e.g., determining the extent to
which a remote-viewing subject can track the real-time
activities and movements of a known individual in a
distant city. Therefore, the subjects were encouraged
to describe real-time activity during the viewing
period.
The methodology with regard to target selection
again was designed to eliminate possible cueing paths.
Targets were determined either by random-number genera-
tor entry into a previously prepared target list un-
known to subject and experimenters with the subject, or
in one case, on the basis of site selection by an in-
dependent, skeptical challenger.
An interesting additional technique that was em-
ployed successfully in the first two of the five ex-
periments was the use of the DARPA computer telecon-
ferencing network for post-experiment feedback. Access
to the computer by the traveling experimenter was by
means of a portable terminal. The use of the telecon-
ferencing service allowed the subject in one state
(California) to communicate with an experimenter in
the other state, New York. The conversational TALK
mode available on the DARPA net was used for this pur-
pose in the following manner.
The subject at SRI (supervised) and the experi-
menter on the east coast agreed (via computer telecon-
ferencing) to begin an experiment in one-half hour.
The purpose of the computer in this experiment was to
provide time- and date-stamped permanent records of all
communications between the various parties involved in
the experiment. These data could be read in real time
by any authorized person entering the SRI-AI Tenex
(MSG) system.
After logging off the computer, the outbound ex-
perimenters used a random-number generator to determine
which of several locations in the target area would
constitute the target to be visited in this experiment.
Neither the subject nor the experimenter at SRI knew
the contents of the target list, compiled in New York
after logging off. Having selected a target location
by the random protocol, the outbound experimenters pro-
ceeded directly to the site and remained there for 15
minutes.
At the previously agreed-upon start time (one-half
hour after breaking computer links) the subject typed
impressions into a special computer file established
for this purpose.
When the outbound experimenters returned from the
target site to the hotel, one of the experimenters made
use of a limited-access file to enter his description
of the place he actually visited. He then returned to
the executive level of the computer, and awaited the
appearance of the SRI experimenters and subject who
could then (and only then) link the New York and Menlo
Park terminals. At that time both files were printed
out on both terminals, the the subject and the outbound
team each learned what the other had written.
Menlo Park to New York City (Grant's Tomb)
Two subjects, S7 and S8, both in California, par-
ticipated simultaneously in this experiment of Grant's
Tomb, which was the first of the two New York City tar-
gets. Both subjects independently provided computer-
stored records of their impressions, and one made the
sketch shown in Figure 2.
Subject S8, an SRI systems analyst, said in his
opening paragraph: "Outdoors, large open area, standing
on and then off asphalt (rough material), dark for a
path. A white building, like a ticket booth. Wooden
structure, is white in color, and has an arched look
about it. There is a large shade tree close to Russ
(outbound experimenter)."
Subject S7, closeted in a separate SRI location,
began with: "I thought of a high place with a view.
The subject continued with "I saw a tree on your left
in a brick plaza -- it seemed to be in front of a build-
ing you were entering." Later, "I could not clearly
identify the activity. A restaurant? A museum? A
bookstore?" And, "You were looking at coins in the
palm of your hand, maybe giving some to Nicky (son of
outbound experimenter)." The coins were in fact used
to purchase the postcard from which Figure 2 was made,
and they were given to the experimenter's son who made
the purchase. Both subjects then went on for an addi-
tional paragraph to describe details of the activities
they imagined to be going on inside the building they
saw, details that were partly correct, partly incorrect.
As an example of the style of narrative generated
by a subject during a computer teleconferencing experi-
ment, we include the entire unedited computer-logged
text of $7's response to the Grant's Tomb target in
Figure 3.
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Grant's Tomb Target in New York City
FRONT VIEW
C
FIGURE 2
COAST-TO-COAST REMOTE VIEWING
EXPERIMENT. SUBJECT DESCRIBED:
"OUTDOORS, LARGE OPEN AREA ....
SHADE TREES .... WHITE BUILDING
WITH ARCHES."
Menlo Park to New York City (Washington Square Fountain)
In the second experiment, the target, again chosen
by random protocol, was the fountain in Washington
Square Park. One subject, S7, participated. The sub-
ject produced an exceptionally accurate transcript.
The photos and the subject's drawing of the fountain
are shown in Figure 4. The subject began his printout
with the following: "The first image I got at about
the first minute was of a cement depression -- as if a
dry fountain with a cement post in the center or in-
side. There seemed to be pigeons off to the right,
flying around the surface out of the depression ....
At
one point I thought you were opening a cellophane
bag .... " (The experimenters had in fact bought ice
cream during the experimental period. ) "There was also
a rectangular wooden frame, a window frame, but I
wasn't sure if it was on a building, or a similar
structure with a different purpose." (A possible cor-
relation from a functional viewpoint to the Washington
Square Arch through which the outbound experimenters
viewed the fountain toward the end of the experimental
period.) "All in all I thought you were in Riverside
Park .... " ( Incorrect analysis. ) An SRI scientist,
familiar with the New York City area but blind to the
target, did, however, identify the target correctly on
reading the twenty lines of printout as it emerged from
the computer terminal. (For the complete transcript,
see Figure 5.)
These experiments provide an elegant demonstration
of the utility of the teleconferencing process as a
secure data recording system to provide real-time moni-
toring of long-distance remote-viewing experiments.
In a more detailed tape recording made after the
experiment, but before any feedback, the subject de-
scribed "cement steps going into the depression, like a
stadium, and the rounded edge of the top of the depres-
sion as you go up to ground level." These descriptions
are not only correct, but also show remarkable detail.
Quantitative Analysis of New York City Target
Transcripts
In attempting to derive a quantitative estimate of
the amount of valid data in a transcript, we have made
a detailed analysis of the previous two transcripts
generated by a single subject ($7) during the long-
distance experiments between Menlo Park, California, and
New York City.
To carry out this analysis, each transcript typed
by the subject into a computer file was edited to re-
tain only declarative statements spontaneously generated
by the subject, or responses to direct questions. These
statements were collected in groups called concepts.
For example, if the subject had five references to a
condition that can be defined as shady, these would be
combined in the concept "shady."
We performed four comparative analyses on the con-
cepts from the two transcripts: Transcript A with Site
A; Transcript B with Site B; Transcript A with Site B;
and Transcript B with Site A. Each concept was assigned
a rating ranging from 0 to 10, depending on the analyst's
subjective impression as to whether the concept had no
correspondence (a rank of 0) or complete correspondence
(a rank of 10) with the target. The cross-matching was
to serve as a crude measure of chance or generalized
correspondence
For the Grant's Tomb target site, there were 21
distinct concepts with a mean score u = 6.4 (= = 4.3);
for the Washington Square site there were 16 concepts
with a mean score u = 6.8 (o = 2.7). The individual
cross matches were as follows: Grant's Tomb trans-
cript to Washington Square had a mean score | = 3.6
(o = 4.3), and the Washington Square transcript matched
against Grant's Tomb yielded a mean score u = 3.8 (o =
3.8). Table 3 shows the detailed analysis for the
Grant's Tomb experiment. For each of the 21 concepts
(all that were found) we display a summary of the con-
cept, the target correspondence and its related score,
and the correspondence with the control target,
Washington Square, and its related score. Table 4
shows the same data for the Washington Square site and
its control target, Grant's Tomb.
The combined score for the direct matches is u =
6.6 (= = 5.1), and for the cross matches is u = 3.7
(o = 5.7), where the means are calculated by direct
average and the standard deviations are computed from
the square root of the sum of squares of the deviations
from the mean scores. The difference in the means,
although not definitive in a statistical sense (be-
cause of the large spread) is consistent with earlier
qualitative assessments of transcript accuracy of over
50 transcripts. From these means we would estimate
that approximately 66% of this one subject's response
constitutes an accurate description of the target site,
whereas if the data are matched against other target
sites, only 37% of the response would typically apply.
.
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<- TYPE 1
(MSG. # 1, 1678 CHARS)
DATE : . 2 JUL 1976 1126-PDT.
FROM : TARG
SUBJECT :
S7's REPORT
To:
TARG
RUSSEL - I THOUGHT OF A HIGH PLACE WITH A VIEW - DETAILS INCLUDED 3 MIN BEFORE V
IEWING I SAW A TREE ON YOUR
LEFT IN A BRICK PLAZA - IT SEEMED TO BE IN FRONT OF A
WRONG BUTTON - BUILIDING YOU WERE ENTERING - YOU WAITED AS IF
FOR AN ELEVATOR AND READ SOMETHING ON THE WALL
YOU CAME OUT (OFF THE ELEVATOR) AND THERE WAS A ROOM ON YOUR
LEFT WITH A VIEW - I COULD NOT CLEARLY IDENTIFY THE ACTIVITY
- A RESTAURANT ? A MUSEUM? ABOOKSTORE? YOU LOOKED AT ASOMETHING
A CARVING OR MENU OR DIRECTIONS ON A POST BEFORE ENTERING -
FROM THE ROOM I THOUGHT THERE WAS A VIEW OF A HARBOR OR WATER
ABOUT 1/3 OF THE FRANME - AT ONE TIME I HAD THE FEELING THAT
YOU WERE LOOKING AT COINS IN THE PALM OF YOUR HAND - MAYBE GIVING
SOME TO NICKY - WHICH WERE THEN PUT IN A SLOT - JUKEBOX? PINBALL ?-
ALSO THE SUFACE WITH SOMETHING VERTICAL ABOVE - SOMETHING REFLECTING
METAL PIPEX OF AN ORGAN (THE ONE I DIDN'T VIEW LAST TIME )
OR OF BOTTLRES AGAINST A MIRROR - SOMETHING REFLECTING - THEN
DAVID SNAPPED HIS FINGERS - I SAW A BASKETBALL' VERY CLEAR
TACTILE SENSATION FRON A SOMEWHAT TEXTURED GLOBE - ALSO, ON
ANOTHER SNAP - THE COLOR RED NOT SHARPLY DEFINED - LIQUID OR
FLOWING MATERIAL OR NICKY RACING AROUND IN A RED SHOIRT
ANOTHER SNAP AND D ASKED FOR THE NAME OF THE PLAVCE -
I WAS THINKING "BAR" BUT I THREW THAT OUT AS OLD AND SAW THE
LETTERS "CH" WHICH I COMPLETED AS "CHILE" OR "CHILI" -- ALSO
ANOTHER SNAP AND THE NAME OF THE THIRRD PERSON - JOE JOHN OR
GERRY - IS IT GARY? - ARUSSELL I S THAT YOUTHI, THAT WAS
S7 , AND WE WERE IN T
HE "MSG" STILL, I THINK THAT IT MAY
ABORT !
FIGURE 3
COMPUTER FILE PRINTOUT. CALIFORNIA-NEW YORK LONG DISTANCE
REMOTE VIEWING. TARGET: GRANT'S TOMB (NYC).
Although crude, this subjective analysis serves as a
first step in suggesting a method for further single
transcript analysis.
New York City to Ohio (Ohio Caves)
A third long-distance remote-viewing experiment
was carried out under the control of an independent,
skeptical scientist.
In this case, both SRI experi-
menters, while visiting in Ohio, agreed to take part
in a remote-viewing experiment in which our host would
select the target.
Under the observation of our challenger, we tele-
phoned Subject S4 in New York City and obtained the
subject's agreement to participate in a long-distance
remote viewing experiment. The subject was told only
that we were located somewhere between New York City
and our California laboratory and that shortly we
would be taken to a target that we would like to have
described. The time for the experiment was set for
2:00 PM EDT. We also agreed to call again at 3:00 PM.
EDT to obtain Subject S4's impressions and to provide
feedback as to the actual target.
The scientist took us directly to the Ohio
Caverns at Springfield, Ohio, which he had chosen as
the target location (see Figure 6). We entered the
grounds through an entrance arch that opens onto an
enormous expanse of lawn, perhaps 20 acres. The caves
are located at a depth of ~ 150 ft and are entered
through a small building having a long flight of steep
stairs. Once underground, we walked through a maze of
rock-lined tunnels that lead eventually into a series
of rooms lined with calcite stalactites and stalag-
mites, frosty white and beige crystals formed like
icicles. The entire cavern is illuminated by small
electric light bulbs attached to the walls. After a
45-minute walk, we exited the caves through a large
metal door giving access to a square cross-sectional
Shaft with stairs leading to the surface.
Following the experimental period, the scientist
observer called the subject in New York, 45 minutes
after we left the caves. The opening statements of
the subject's transcript as dictated over the phone
and posted to the SRI experimenters is as follows:
"1:50 PM before starting -- Flat semi-industrial
countryside with mountain range in background
and something to do with underground caves or
mines or deep shafts -- half man made, half
natural -- some electric humming going on --
throbbing, inner throbbing. Nuclear or some
very far out and possibly secret installation --
corridor -- mazes of them -- whole underground city
almost -- Don't like it at all-long for outdoors
and nature. 2:00 PM -- (Experimenters) R and H
walking along sunny road -- entering into arbor-
like shaft -- again looks like man helped
nature -- vines (wisteria) growing in arch at
entrance like to a wine cellar -- leading into
underground world. Darker earth-smelling
cool moist passage with something grey and of
interest on left of them -- musty -- sudden change
to bank of elevators -- a very man-made steel
wall -- and shaft-like inverted silo going deep
below earth -- brightly lit .... "
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1.
20
Pigens
15%-
Lage
Subject's Perception was of a "Cement Depression -
as if a Dry Fountain - with a Cement Post in the
Center .or Inside."
dry fortin
or stadion
FIGURE 4
COAST-TO-COAST REMOTE VIEWING EXPERIMENT WITH TARGET AT WASHINGTON
SQUARE IN NEW YORK CITY
TYPE "MESSAGE SEQUENCE) 6
(MEG. #. 6. 1730 CHARS ?
DATE
6. JUL 1976 1354-PDT
FROM TARS
SUBJECT :
S7's REPORT PART 2 NYC EXP
THE FIRST IMAGE I GOT AT ABOUT THE FIRST MINUTE WAS OF A CEMENT
DEPRESSION - AS IF A DRY FOUNTAIN - WITH A CEMENT POST IN THE
CENTER OR INSIDE :. THERE. SEEMED TO BE PIGEONS OFF TO THE RIGHT,
FLYING AROUNDTHE SURFACE OUT OF THE DEPRESSION. THEN I SAW AS
IF IFIF IN THE DISTANCE A REAL" STADIUM WITH GRASS IN THE
CENTER AND PERHAPS STADIUM LIGHTS. OTHER IMAGES WERE AROW
OF HOUSES/APICKET FENCE - SOME VERTICAL UNITS WITH JAGGED TOPS.
THEN A FLUTED GROOVED VERTICAL COLUMN, BUT I COULDN'T SENSE WAHT
IT WAS RELATED TO. AGAIN YOU WERE IN A DEPRESSED AREA WITH
CEMENT SIDES, LOOKING OUT ONTO THE SURFACE OUTSIDE .. THE CEMENT
SIDES ARE NOT STRAIGHT, BUT SLOPING, ALMOST S-SHAPRD. ALSO .A
CLEAR FEELING OF THE HEAVY, WORN METAL BAR ON THE TOP OF
TYPICAL NYC OR ANYCITY FENCES. THERE DIDN'T SEEM TO BE ANYTHING
REALLY SPECIAL INSIDE, JUST A SEPARATION BETWEEN TEWO TWO
SIMILAR AREAS. AT ONE POINT, I THOUGHT YOU WERE OPENING A
CELLOPHANE BAG: AND LATER I SENSED YOU FEEDING POPCORN -TO
PIGEONS. THERE WAS ALSO A RECTANGULAR WOODEN FRAME > A WINDOW
FRAME, BUT I WASN'T SURE IF IT WAS ON A BUILDING, OR A
SIMILAR STRUCTURE WITH A DIFFERENT PURPOSE. ALL IN ALL, I THOUGHT
YOU WERE IN RIVERSIDE PARK NEAR A TRACK AND PLAY AREA,
OCCASIONALLY LOOKING UP AT THE "ROCK AND LEAF" CLIFFS LEADING
UP TO THE DRIVE. AFTER I HAD THOUGHT THAT AND FIT IT IN T
WITH THE IMAGES RECEIVED SO FAR, IT KIND OF STUCK, AND I
POSSIBLY GENERATED MORE PARK SCENES. THE STADIUM /FOUN
TAIN IMAGES WERE THE FIRST AND THUS THE LEAST BIASED AS TO
PARK MEMORIES. (I SURE DO LIKR THE TLELETYPE. IT CAN BECOME
AN OBSESSIVE PASTIME, I SEE).
THAT. WAS MESSAGE 6
FIGURE 5
COMPUTER FILE PRINTOUT. CALIFORNIA-NEW YORK LONG
DISTANCE REMOTE VIEWING. TARGET: WASHINGTON
SQUARE (NYC).
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result the majority of his transcript, although con-
taining some correct elements, reflects primarily an
incorrect analytical interpretation and cannot be said
to constitute evidence for paranormal functioning.
New Orleans to Palo Alto (Northern California Bank
Plaza)
Two experiments carried out between New Orleans
and Menlo Park, California, constitute the final tests
of the long-distance series, five experiments of which
have been completed to date (all reported here). These
last two were carried out with the two subjects who had
participated in the first two California-to-New York
experiments.
The first experiment in this series involved
Subject S7 in New Orleans viewing activities of a group
of three people known to the subject, at a location in
a Palo Alto/Menlo Park area 2000 miles away. The sub-
ject's principal impression was of an "overhang of a
building over their heads ... also a round gold rim
around a sunken depression." The target, a bank build-
ing is shown in Figure 7. Principal features of the
target include a dramatic building overhang, and a rec-
tangular concrete depression with a fountain in which
the water comes out of a circular gold rim. The sub-
ject also reported "some kind of fake china flowers
mushrooming out of the depression." There were four
orange lamps mounted on the gold rim. Finally, S7
reported "there was a projectile coming toward (one of
the outbound experimenters). Like a ball or frisbee,
as if (another experimenter) has tossed him a ball."
Actually the experimenters had found a paper airplane
lying on the ground and had thrown it back and forth
several times. In fact, the photo of the site taken
at the time of the experiment shows the airplane between
them. This is one of the few times that a remote view-
ing subject has perceived rapid motion at the target
site.
Table 3
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE GRANT'S TOMB TRANSCRIPT
Subject's Description (Quotes)
Correspondence (0-10)
Cross-Correspondence to
Washington Square (0-10)
1. I thought of a high place with a view
Bluff overlooking river
10
Standing in a depression
0
2.
I saw a tree on your left
Lots of trees
10
Nearby trees
8
3.
In a brick plaza
Plaza looks like brick
8
Plaza looks like brick
8
4.
Building you were entering
Entered tomb building
10
No buildings
0
5.
Read something on the wall
Read informative plaque
10
No walls, no reading
0
6. Came off the elevator
No elevator
0
No elevator
0
7. A restaurant?
None
0
None
0
8. A museum?
It is a museum
10
None
0
9. A bookstore?
Books and cards are sold
10
None
0
O
10. A carving, menu or directions on a post
Bronze plaque at entry
8
None
0
11. The room has a view
Room looks down on tombs thirty
No room
0
feet below
7
12. View of harbor or water
View of river
9
Large operating fountain
13. Coins in your hand
Used to buy cards
10
Used to buy ice cream
10
14. Gave some coins to Nicky (son)*
He bought cards
10
Doesn't apply
15.
Nicky put them into a slot
No slot
0
Doesn't apply
16.
Reflecting metal pipes
Could be columns
6
Metal pipes in fountain
6
17.
Bottles against a mirror
None
0
None
0
18.
Something reflecting
Marble and glass doors
6
Water in fountain
6
19.
Basketball or textured globe
None
0
Glass globes around fountain
8
20, Nicky in red shirt
Correct
10
Doesn't apply
21. Liquid or flowing material
None
0
Water in fountain
10
Mean
6.4
Mean
3.6
Subject knew Nicky was in New York with experimenter.
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FIGURE 6
OHIO CAVES: DESCRIBED BY
SUBJECT IN NEW YORK AS,
"UNDERGROUND CAVES OR MINES ....
DEEP SHAFTS .... DARKER, COOL,
MOIST EARTH-SMELLING PASSAGES."
Subject S4 concludes with
"I see a lot of gold and metal and silver-gold
glow all over -- not much sound -- very silent
factory -- scary -- few people -- very special."
As if often the case, one observes that the basic
gestalt of the target site is cognized and even ex-
perienced -- e.g., the underground caves aspect, while
specifics are misinterpreted -- e.g., the labeling of
the location as a nuclear installation.
A second subject ($8) working by himself at SRI,
who had agreed in advance to participate in the same
experiment by date and time, was less successful with
the cavern target. This subject erroneously interpreted
early impressions as associated with a museum. As a

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Table 4
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE WASHINGTON SQUARE TRANSCRIPT
Subject Description (Quotes)
Correspondences (0-10)
Cross-Correspondence to
Grant's Tomb (0-10)
1.
Cement depression
We were in a cement depression
10
Tombs are in marble depression
10
2.
A dry fountain
Operating fountain
8
None
0
3.
Cement post in the center
Cement post plus large pipe
7
Tombs in center
2
4.
Pigeons off to the right
Pigeons were in the park nearby
8
No pigeons
0
5.
Stadium with grass and lights
Scale factor
3
Scale factor
3
6.
Rows of houses, picket fence
Houses with iron fences
9
None
0
7.
Vertical units with jagged tops
Arch supports perhaps
3
Columns in front of building
10
8.
Fluted grooved white columns
Side of arch supports
6
Columns in front of building
10
9.
You are in depressed area with
cement sides
Exactly
10
Tomb is in a depressed area
3
10.
Sides are sloping almost S-
shaped
Exactly
10
Somewhat curved at top
3
11.
Heavy worn metal
Copper posts in fountain
7
Marble railing
3
12.
A separation between two
different areas
In and out of fountain
6
Above and below in tomb area
7
13.
You were opening a cellophane bag
Yes
10
No
0
14.
You were feeding popcorn to
pigeons
Others were
3
No pigeons
0
15.
Rectangular wooden frame. .. on a
building
Could be the arch
5
Rectangular building
3
16.
Riverside park, tracks and play
area
Play area nearby
3
Tomb is in Riverside Park
7
Mean
6.8
Mean
3.8
Menlo Park to New Orleans (Louisiana Superdome)
For the final experiment (subject in Menlo Park) it
was agreed that at 1200 CST on a particular day, the
outbound experimenter would choose a target location in
his city by random protocol and remain there for the
required 15 minutes. During this time, Subject S8 in
Menlo Park would tape-record impressions and make any
drawings that seemed appropriate. (The DARPA net was
not available because of computer net malfunction.)
The target chosen by randomized entry into a New
Orleans guide book list was the Louisiana Superdome.
The outbound experimenter tape-recorded the following
description as he looked at the building:
"It is a
bright sunshiny day. In front of me is a huge silvery
building with a white dome gleaming in the sun. It is
a circular building with metal sides. It looks like
nothing so much as a flying saucer. The target is in
fact the 80,000-seat Louisiana Superdome stadium."
The subject in Menlo Park described the target
as "a large circular building with a white dome."
The
subject also expressed feelings of wanting to reject
what he saw because the dome looked "like a flying
saucer in the middle of a city." Some appreciation for
this perception |can be obtained from Figure 8 in which
the target is shown, together with the sketches that
the subject made.
Taken overall, the results obtained in these five
long-distance remote-viewing experiments are of roughly
the same accuracy with regard to site description as
those obtained in local remote-viewing experiments.
The descriptions not only contain correct information
beyond that expected by chance, but also show remark-
able detail and resolution. Furthermore, real-time
activities are observed and correctly described in a
number of instances. Although extensive data must be
taken before a final conclusion can be reached, it
appears at this point that there is little, if any,
degradation in quality of perception as the subject-
target distance is increased from a few miles to trans-
continental distances. The results obtained on the
basis of viewing a New York site from SRI in Menlo Park,
California, three thousand miles away, for example, are
similar to those obtained in local remote-viewing ex-
periments. Any theory of paranormal functioning put
forward at this time should take this insensitivity to
distance into account, and any application of para-
normal functioning need not, to first order, consider
distance as a barrier, at least to the range examined.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we have described our investigations
into aspects of human perception that appear to fall
outside the range of well-understood perceptual/pro-
cessing capabilities. Specifically, we have examined
a phenomenon we call "remote viewing," the ability of
certain individuals to access and describe, by mental
processes, remote geographical sites blocked from
ordinary perception by reason of distance and shielding.
In a series of experiments extending up to 5000 km,
we have not observed any degradation in accuracy or
resolution as a function of increasing distance. Fur-
thermore, some real-time tracking of the activities of
individuals at the target site has been accomplished
over these distances. Although the information channel
is imperfect, the data generated by the remote viewing
process exceeds any reasonable bounds of chance
correlation.
In the spirit of the dictum of physicist Richard P.
Feynman that experimentation in difficult and contro-
versial areas should be exhaustively self-criticized,
we list below the potential criticisms of our experi-
mentation, along with a discussion of each point:
criticism (C) and rebuttal (R).
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Circular Fountain in
Concrete Depression
FIGURE 7
REMOTE VIEWING EXPERIMENT - NEW ORLEANS TO PALO ALTO, 30 OCTOBER 1976.
SUBJECT DESCRIBED: "THE OVERHANG OF A BUILDING OVER THEIR HEADS," ALSO
"A ROUND GOLD RIM AROUND A SUNKEN DEPRESSION" .... "IN THE SURFACE OF
THE DEPRESSION THERE IS SOME KIND OF FAKE CHINA FLOWERS. IT'S LIKE A
BONSAI TREE MUSHROOMING OUT OF THE SURFACE." LATER IN THE TRANSCRIPT
THE SUBJECT SAID "THERE WAS A PROJECTILE COMING TOWARD ONE OF THE
OUTBOUND EXPERIMENTERS. SOME KIND OF A PROJECTILE, LIKE A BALL OR
FRISBEE. AS IF ANOTHER EXPERIMENTER TOSSED HIM A BALL." (IT WAS A
PAPER AIRPLANE.)
Experiment Selection:
C1:
The experiments discussed could be selected
out of a larger pool of experiments of which
many are of poorer quality.
R1:
Selection of experiments for reporting does
not take place; every experiment is entered
as performed on a master log and is included
in the statistical evaluations.
Data Selection:
C2:
Data for the reported experiments could be
edited to show only the matching elements, the
nonmatching elements being discarded.
R2:
Data associated with a given experiment remain
unedited; all experiments are tape recorded
and all data ( tape transcripts, drawings,
clay models) are included unedited in the data
package to be judged and evaluated.
Cueing :
C3:
The study could involve naivete in protocol
that permits various forms of cueing, in-
tentional or unintentional.
R3:
The use of double-blind protocols ensures
that none of the persons in contact with the
subject is aware of either the particular
target or target pool; similarly, no one in
contact with a judge is aware of the target-
list/subject-output correspondence. For
example, judges are not taken to target sites
by a knowledgeable person, but rather proceed
to the target sites, unaccompanied, on the
basis of written instructions generated with-
out knowledge of subject output.
Educated Guess:
C4:
A subject may be able to guess as to which
sites in a given area are likely to be chosen
as targets, and may have familiarized himself
with the locations.
R4:
In the statistical judging procedure used, no
advantage could be gained even if a subject
were to be given a list of possible target
sites beforehand and encouraged to familiarize
himself with the locations. Even in such an
extreme hypothetical case (no such procedure
was ever used) where a subject could not help
but render a set of perfect descriptions of
target sites, he still has the basic statis-
tical problem of generating blind the correct
target/description pair sequence upon which
the statistical evaluation is based.
Target Limitations:
C5:
If a subject is given feedback after an ex-
periment that today's target was a fountain,
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.
dene
qua
Coment
coment
grass
Rus,
FRONT
10
Calls . with glass
display Cases.
FIGURE 8
LONG DISTANCE REMOTE VIEWING EXPERIMENT - SRI,
MENLO PARK, TO LOUISIANA SUPERDOME. SUBJECT
DESCRIBED LARGE CIRCULAR BUILDING WITH A WHITE
DOME. 31 OCTOBER 1976.
he knows that the following target is unlikely
to be a fountain, since targets are chosen for
unique differentiable qualities.
R5:
The target pool is use (> 100 target sites)
contains several fountains, several buildings,
several parks, etc., and therefore the content
of a given target, determined by random entry
into the target pool, is essentially indepen-
dent of the contents of other targets.
Transcript Generality:
C6:
Transcripts generated by subjects are so
general as to match anything. ("Sky is blue,
grass is |green.")
R6:
Judging protocol involves differential match-
ing. Therefore, true but general statements
do not help a judge to preferentially assign
a transcript to one site as opposed to
another.
"Read-In" Matches:
C7:
Given a transcript and a target, a judge can
"read in" matches.
R7:
Differential matching on a blind basis allows
matches to be "read in" equally for non-cor-
responding as well as corresponding target/
transcript pairs, and therefore provides no
differential advantage.
Inadequate Handling of Judging Materials:
C8:
Preparation of judging materials (transcript
typing) may provide opportunity for a "leak,"
or perhaps degradation of typing ribbon may
provide artifactual information as to order
of experiments.
R8:
Transcript typing is carried out in a random
order by individuals kept blind to the key;
one-time ribbons are used.
Post Hoc Photography :
C9:
Photographs used to illustrate remote view-
ing results are taken after completion of
the experiments, and therefore suffer from
the fallacy of post hoc matching.
R9:
All blind judging, matching, and statistical
evaluation of the results (which is where
the scientific issues are decided) are com-
pleted before photographs are taken; judges
do not have access to photographs during
their analysis, and therefore judges cannot
be cued into correspondences observed post
hoc.
In short, at all times, we and others responsible
for the overall program took measures to prevent sen-
sory leakage and subliminal cueing and to prevent
deception, whether intentional or unintentional. To
ensure evaluations independent of belief structures of
both experimenters and judges, all experiments were
carried out under a protocol in which target selection
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at the beginning of experiments and blind judging of
results at the end of experiments were handled indepen-
dently of the researchers engaged in carrying out the
experiments. In five years of self- and other-criti-
cism, we have not found a way to fault either the ex-
perimental protocols or the conclusions derived there-
from.
Furthermore, since the initial publication of our
investigations of this remarkable phenomenon, 1,2 in-
dependent successful replication experiments have been
performed in other laboratories as well.14-19 Therefore,
the phenomenon does not appear to depend on specific
personality/environment configurations. We are thus
led to conclude that remote viewing constitutes a ro-
bust phenomenon whereby subjects are able to describe
in words and drawings, to a degree exceeding any
reasonable bounds of chance correlation, both the
location and actions of experimenters placed at undis-
closed sites at varying separations from the subjects
up to transcontinental distances.
REFERENCES
1.
Russell Targ and Harold Puthoff, "Information
11
transfer under conditions of sensory shielding,
Nature, vol. 252, pp. 602-607, October 18, 1974.
2.
Harold Puthoff and Russell Targ, "A Perceptual
channel for information transfer over kilometer
distances : Historical perspective and recent
research, " Proc. IEEE, vol. 64, pp. 329-354,
March 1976.
3.
Russell Targ and Harold Puthoff, Mind-Reach.
New York: Delacorte Press, 1977.
4.
Harold Puthoff and Russell Targ, "Direct Percep-
tion of Remote Geographical Locations," Proc.
IEEE Electro/77 Special Session on The State of
the Art in Psychic Research, New York, N. Y.,
April 19-21, 1977.
5.
J. Ehrenwald, "Cerebral localization and the psi
syndrome, " J. of Nervous and Mental Disease,
vol. 161, No. 6, pp. 393-398.
6.
R. Ornstein, The nature of human consciousness.
San Francisco, CA: Freeman, 1973, Ch. 7 and 8.
7. R. W. Sperry, "Cerebral organization and behavior,
Science, vol. 133, pp. 1749-1757, 1961.
8.
I.M. Kogan, "Is telepathy possible?, " Radio Eng.,
vol. 21, p. 75, January 1966.
9.
"Telepathy, hypotheses and observations, "
Radio Eng., vol. 22, p. 141, January 1967.
10.
"Information theory analysis of telepathic
communication experiments," Radio Eng., vol. 23,
p. 122, March 1968.
11.
"The information theory aspect of telep-
athy, "RAND Publ. P-4145, Santa Monica, CA,
July 1969.
12.
M. A. Persinger, "Geophysical models for parapsy-
chological experiences, " Psychoenergetic Systems,
vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 63-74, 1975.
13.
"The paranormal -- P. II : Mechanisms and
models, " M. S. S. Information Corp., New York,
1974.
14.
Arthur Hastings and David Hurt, "A confirmatory
remote viewing in a group setting, " Proc. IEEE,
vol. 64, October 1976.
15.
Thomas Whitson, David Bogart, John Palmer, and
Charles Tart,
'Preliminary experiments in group
remote viewing,
=
Proc. IEEE, vol. 64, October
1976.
16.
Jacques Vallee, Arthur Hastings, and Gerald
Askevold, "Remote viewing experiments through
computer conferencing, " Proc. IEEE, vol. 64,
October 1976.
17.
J. P. Bisaha and B. J. Dunne, "Precognitive remote
viewing in the Chicago area, a replication of
the Stanford experiment, " Research in Parapsy-
chology 1976. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press
Inc., 1977.
18.
B. J. Dunne and J. Bisaha, "Multiple Channels in
Precognitive Remote Viewing, "
Research in Para-
psychology 1977. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow
Press Inc. (in press).
19.
J. P. Bisaha and B.J. Dunne, "Multiple Subject and
Long Distant Precognitive Remote Viewing of Geo-
graphical Locations, " Proc. IEEE 1977 Internation-
al Conference on Cybernetics and Society,
Washington, D.C., September 19-21, 1977.
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SOME COMMENTS ON THE SUBJECTIVE NATURE OF PSYCHIC RESEARCH,
THE SUBJECT-EXPERIMENTER RELATIONSHIP AND THE PSYCHIC TYPE OF PERSONALITY
Ingo Swann, Consultant
Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, California 94025
ABSTRACT
Successful psychic research subjects are seldom
asked to estimate or elaborate upon their personal con-
tact with psychic abilities. The emergent field of
parapsychology is thereby weighted heavily with the
opinions, hypotheses and selective areas of interest of
researchers. Therefore, the field is deficient in in-
formation that might lead to the establishment of novel
hypotheses incorporating subjective inputs from psychic
subjects. This condition has probably not been favor-
able to the establishment of a holistic view of para-
psychological potential. It has created an unreal
formal division between psychic abilities and experi-
menter, perpetuated difficulties in the subject-experi-
menter relationship, and delayed an understanding of
the psychic-type of personality. These difficulties
are real, and are reflected in the literature, which is
reviewed.
INTRODUCTION
The following brief paper represents not so much
a critical assessment of certain areas of parapsychol-
ogy, but a tentative description of some work to be
done in the future. It is based partly on the author's
extensive participation as a parapsychology research
subject in some seventeen separate research situations
over the past six-year period, and partly on studies of
official and unofficial parapsychological literature.
Essentially, up to the present, parapsychology in
the United States exhibits characteristics associated
with a closed intrasociety. New members find entrance
into it difficult; it possesses a hierarchy of in-
fluence; it has a low toleration for unusual and ex-
traordinary hypotheses; and it tends to depersonalize
its topic -- psychic abilities -- from human attribute to
impersonal empiricism. It possesses a literature in
the form of journals, and is hereafter referred to as
"official."
There exists also a vast amount of "unofficial"
literature in the form of biographies, records of un-
usual "psychic" material, and anthologies of mixed
official and unofficial content.
It has been the experience of the author that
psychic subjects are confined to unofficial status,
and are seldom, if ever, invited into or obtain mem-
bership within the official community. This condition
is, of course, not unusual in the mental sciences, and
presently is showing some signs of change. In the
past, though, this political divisiveness has led to
many impasses in the emergent understanding of para-
normal aptitudes, and many of these impasses are per-
petuated by the dominant attitudes and personalities
of official status.
The official community can be criticized, as has
already been done in many instances, of failing in
achievement, and this criticism is likely to increase
as the advances of the Soviets continue to come to
light presently. The author believes that this criti-
cism is justified in some part, but failure of para-
psychologists is not total, nor does it originate
totally within the official parapsychological com-
munity itself. The official parapsychological com-
munity suffers from strong constraints that originate
within the disbelief systems of the broader scientific
community. The scientific community, as a suprasocial
order, has very low tolerance for the parapsychological
community, since the base hypotheses of the two are in
extreme disagreement.
THE "UNOFFICIAL" PARAPSYCHOLOGICAL COMMUNITY
AS AN UNTAPPED SOURCE OF ADVANCEMENT
The unofficial community, therefore, has no direct
route into scientific consideration, since it is not
incorporated into official status, which in turn is re-
jected for the most part by the suprasocial order.
Because of this, the unofficial sources might be thought
of as an uninspected source of advancement for the
future, and the author feels that the granting of re-
newed interest in a novel cooperation of the official
and unofficial parapsychological communities is now in
order, especially in view of the emerging clues con-
cerning Soviet advances in psychotronics.
THREE MAJOR AREAS WHERE OFFICIAL AND
UNOFFICIAL STATUS CAN AND DO MELD
There appear to be three major areas (at least)
where official and unofficial characteristics either
meld or conflict, depending upon the individuals in-
volved.
Of these three, the extraordinary difficulties
found in the subject-experimenter relationship is the
most obvious, as well as the most documented.
Second, the official community, it might be as-
sumed, would be interested in identifying the psychic-
type of personality, but interest in this topic has
been sporadic, and stronger some twenty years ago than
it is at the present. The identification of the psy-
chic-type of personality would necessitate larger and
increased inputs by those personalities themselves,
creating a bridge (if even tentative) between official
methodologies and unofficial content.
Third, there exists a vast and unexplored area of
subjective or qualitative information that has hardly
ever been solicited by the official community from its
psychic subjects, nor, frankly, tolerated by the major-
ity of its present or historical personalities. The
present author views this situation as unfortunate in
the extreme, since the United States has possessed many
gifted and creative psychics.
These three areas might be seen by contemporary
parapsychologists and future comers to be of high
interest if not of high priority, and each area possi-
bly represents a discrete area of inquiry concerning
the nature of psychic potential.
The Subject-Experimenter Relationship
It has been apparent in psychical research for
quite some time that psychic subject relationships with
experimenters constitute a special field of inquiry in
parapsychology, and perhaps a special problem to
science in general.
It is understood, in science as a whole, that sub-
ject-experimenter relationships often suffer from
standard pitfalls and experimenter effects.2 In para-
psychology, however, this situation takes on extra-
ordinary importance. In sociology and psychology, for
*
See bibliography,
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example, subject-experimenter relationships may suffer
merely from bias originating in the experimenter's
school of thought, or from within the experimenter's
hypothesis which he is testing. When this is so, the
experimenter may eventually overcome the difficulties
if and when he is willing to go beyond his schooling
and favorite hypothesis.
In psychic research, however, accumulating evi-
dence indicates that the subject-experimenter rela-
tionship is of extraordinary, if not basic, importance;
and that the subject-experimenter relationship is
possessed of problems that involve the experimenter's
own psychic potential and hence are amazing in their
complexity and stunning for their magnitude.
At this present stage in psychic research, the
situation is cogently identified by what appears to be
a paradox: some experimenters seem to achieve comfir-
mative results in their experimentation, while others
do not, and in fact, seem to disrupt chance expecta-
tion in their experiments towards an unexpected, un-
explained negative statistic.
In some cases, failure of the experiment can be
explained by lack of psychic ability in the subject,
experiment incompatibility, and experiment deficiency,
and standard experimenter bias and ineptitude. Often,
however, when these factors are corrected, the subject-
experimenter relationship still fails to produce
results.
Past inspection of this situation suggests that
there are several factors not usually found in other
disciplines that enter into parapsychological experi-
mentation. An understanding of these factors seems
paramount if psychical research achievement is to be
seriously envisioned.
As early as 1938, 33
it was discovered that in
independent research projects whose conditions and
goals were closely parallel, highly significant re-
sults were obtained in one case while in another, only
chance results were found. It was felt then that the
possible cause of this discrepancy was due to dif-
ferences in the experimental approach and the handling
of the subjects. A joint experiment was made to
determine if such was the case, and it was concluded
that "failure to find evidence of ESP in card tests
may be due to an unfavorable experimenter-subject
relationship."
During 1943 to 194538,39 it was confirmed that an
individual's personal belief system concerning the
existence of and possibilities in ESP influenced not
only successful results in subjects, but also the ex-
perimenter's attitude and approach to ESP experiments.
A negative belief depressed results while a positive
belief contributed to successful experimental outcomes.
Schmeidler labeled the non-believers "goats" and the
believers "sheep."
Schmeidler's discovery of the sheep-goat effect
probably constitutes one of parapsychology's most
basic phenomenologies, indicating that one person's
psychic gestalt (composed of learning, attitudes,
preferences, bias, tolerance, expectations) somehow
interacts with the psychic gestalt of others. In
19664 confirmatory sheep-goat experiments showed a
highly significant relationship between belief and
scoring in ESP tests.
Thus, the basic opinion and psychological atti-
tudes of the experimenter interact at some communal
sub-awareness level with those of the subject, and
tend to influence the visibility of ESP in the subject.
In parapsychology, therefore, the peculiar psychology
of the experimenter becomes of as great an interest as
is the psychology of the psychic subject.
A survey of the parapsychological literature, how-
ever, indicates a deficit of inquiry concerning the
psychologies of parapsychologists, and no reports are
available revealing the psychological profiles of ex-
perimenters who have obtained positive results and
experimenters who have obtained negative results.
It seems obvious, therefore, that in future meth-
odologies that isolate a more exact image of the ideal
experimenter in his or her own psychic poise will take
on as much importance as probing into the insights and
talents of psychic subjects. A recent assessment of
this situation32 deliberates this situation and estab-
lishes the probable truth that a psychic experiment can
no longer be considered apart from its overall context,
environment, participants and sociological expectations.
Is There a Psychic-Type of Personality?
There has been, within the official literature,
some effort to determine the characteristics of the
psychic-type of personality. For the most part, this
effort has been sporadic, falling victim, the author
feels, to the exclusion principles operating in the
official community. Identification of the psychic-type
certainly has not received overwhelming attention, nor
does this category of parapsychological work appear to
have other than a low priority.
Evidence exists, however, that there is a psychic-
type of personality, or at least a type of subject
personality that is most likely to be successful in ex-
periments. It is to be understood that this type might
be very illusive in the experimental situation, since
the experimental situation appears to respond and be
influenced by other than subject willingness and
abilities, as mentioned above.
It might be expected that positive platforms in-
volving incentives, vital interests, attitudes and
expectations would contribute to successful outcomes in
parapsychological testing, since these categories are
seen to contribute to other areas of human endeavor.
In 194303 it was found that experiments with incentives
yielded significantly higher scores than tests without
incentives. A moderate improvement in scoring was ob-
tained merely by informing the subject of his result,
while a significantly higher improvement accompanied
the giving of a reward for high scores.
Effect of attitudes was demonstrated in 1960, 32
while, similarly, a high significance between interest
of the subject in the task and his
scoring was estab-
lished in 1967.5 In 1975 and 197649, 50
it was found
that those who expected psi hitting scored significantly
higher above chance than those who expected not to be
successful. This latter type of report echoes the
implications of the sheep-goat phenomenon.
In 1945 and 194812,13 attempts were made to dis-
cover if ESP and IQ were possibly related, but it was
found that if any there was only a small correlation
between ESP performance and IQ. In 1965- it was
established that the separation of ESP scores on the
basis of IQ showed no relationship between intelligence
and ESP, and, in 195036 evidence was offered that
mental health analysis did not prove to be a reliable
basis for selecting good ESP subjects. In terms of IQ
and mental health, therefore, psi performance is not
necessarily predictable, any more than is genius and
inventiveness predictable or measurable by IQ.1,9
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A search of the official parapsychological liter-
ature reveals that it may be possible to isolate suc-
cessful psi subjects on the basis of extroversion, ex-
pansiveness and world view.
In 194647
it was found that high and low scores in
ESP drawing tests were separable on the basis of the
expansive or compressive quality of subjects' drawings.
Subjects who did well in ESP tests tended to make ex-
pansive drawings, while those who scored below chance
expectations tended to produce compressive drawings.
It was also found that, given the Maslow Security-
Insecurity Test, high ESP scores were obtained by the
secure subjects, and low scores by the insecure
subjects.
This particular indicator of good ESP performance
expectation was confirmed in 1973,
where expansive
subjects scored significantly higher in ESP than com-
pressive subjects (p < 0.05), these results being in-
dicative of an interaction between extroversion and
expansiveness.
A consistency between high-scoring subjects and
extrovert-introvert ratings was found in 1951,17 where
74% of extroverts gave high ESP scores and 71% of the
introverts gave lower scores than the expected average.
The relationship of extroversion to ESP scoring was
seen again in 1952, ' when, in telepathy tests, extro-
vert receivers scored positively while introvert
receivers scored negatively. It was found in 197119
that the difference between extroverts and introverts
was significant in every case, and that positive and
negative characteristics could be established based
upon extroversion and introversion. Extroversion and
ESP thus may be taken as a positive correlation. 21
In 195444
it was found that subjects who turned
their aggression outward scored low in ESP tests as
contrasted with subjects who did not, who scored sig-
nificantly above chance, while it was shown in 196718
that subjects who had a high degree of anxiety as
measured by the Defense Mechanism Test scored below
chance and those who had a low level of anxiety tended
to score well above chance.
In 1968° it was established that those who tended
to perceive the external world in a holistic manner
showed more evidence of ESP than those who tended to
perceive the world in an analytical manner.
The psychic-type of personality, therefore, is
probably not isolatable by IQ determinants, and is
divergent from standard mental testing processes, and
in these contexts in generally unknown. In his or her
subjective qualities, however, the psychic-type of
personality can be seen as a non-aggressive extrovert,
who tends towards holistic world views, and is capable
of high interest, both subjectively and empirically, in
psi processes.
Holistic world views are composed partly of em-
pirical associations and experience; but there is a
good deal of evidence suggesting that a world view may
be composed of other and additional factors not asso-
ciable to external realities as we presently understand
them. These factors are, so far, to be considered as
subjective in their nature, and gather increasing
importance as evidence for them accumulates.
The Subjective Nature of Psychic Research
A tentative assessment of the future of psychic
research (but an assessment that the author does not
feel too hasty or unwarranted) indicates that a great
deal of future parapsychological achievement in re-
search will rely upon revealing the subjective
determinants of both subject and researcher alike. As
noted before, the official literature carries no reports
on the mental makeup or subjective realities of experi-
menters. The subjective realities of subjects, when
written up, exists in the unofficial literature, which
is diverse, cloudy and of a massiveness that is prohibi-
tive to organized investigation, save in the presence
of a large staff, adequate funding and computer storage
and retrieval systems. This paper, in fact, constitutes
a preliminary proposal for a project to collect, cate-
gorize, test and evaluate the subjective realities of
subjects and experimenters alike.
The evidence in the official literature has led
inexorably toward the illusive, intangible areas of the
subjective; but this trend has been engaged only tenta-
tively and only by select researchers (as listed in the
bibliography).
This type of research -- into the subjective -- would
necessarily begin with the disadvantage that the mental
sciences hold the subjective to be at least irrelevant,
if not irrational and characteristic of the "lunatic
fringe." Notwithstanding, it seems appropriate, based
upon the limited, but clear, evidence given here and
found in the official literature, increasing excursions
into the subjective seem recommended.
In the author's opinion, the subjective realities
of psi subjects possess at least three tangible quali-
ties that cannot be avoided.
First, the verifiable data that emerges out of a
subjective attempt to view distant locations35 is seen
to be remarkably accurate. There is hardly any other
interpretation for this phenomenon, except to hypothe-
size that there exist additional forms of human per-
ception at the subjective levels, forms that have not
yet been isolated fully, and whose structure is unknown
at this point. But that that structure must exist,
there can hardly be any doubt.
Second, creative individuals, psi subjects and
parapsychological experimenter alike are seen to inter-
act within hitherto unelaborated subjective constraints.
And, third, successful ESP subjects appear to
depend almost as heavily upon their subjective realities
as they do upon objective experience. This allows them
to create or participate in operant modes of conscious-
ness that are alien to objective science alone and which
are, for lack of a better term, almost solely subjective
in their nature.
There may be a fourth reason for engaging heavily
in subjective research of the psychic. This paper is
being prepared before the author can have sufficient
access to information coming out of the Soviet Union as
a result of the Toth detainment. What information is
available, however, seriously substantiates that Soviet
parapsychologists have intruded deeply into the sub-
jective possibilities of psychic potential, have iso-
lated a certain amount of structure, and are expediting
development of psi-mediated communication channels and
lines of perception and influence at a distance.
CONCLUSION
It is the author's opinion that the subjective
aspects of psychic research can no longer be avoided.
It has been his experience in active and extended para-
psychological research that successful outcomes of ex-
perimentation depend almost totally upon commensurate
subjective flexibilities, both in the subject and in the
experimenter alike. This might also be extended to
include individuals not directly associated with the
experiment.
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It seems apparent that the individual's subjective
qualities might be static or frozen in many instances,
but that the subjective qualities are none the less
capable of swift flux, association and psychic concre-
tizing. These subjective qualities might exist either
as a gestalt or holistic psychological platform, but
that, upon occasion, they can be convened with pre-
cision capable of perceiving, identifying and communi-
cating bits of information that flow into the analyti-
cal capabilities of gifted psychics. These subjective
qualities can, and do, interact with the psi-fields of
others, and are influenced accordingly, depending upon
the confidence and goals of the individuals involved,
The tips of these subjective qualities can be seen
in the official literature by the subject-experimenter
paradox and in the personality characteristics (limited
as they may so far have been established) of the psy-
chic-type. The overall subjective implications can be
Seen, if one's belief system is permissive of novel and
unique information, in the unofficial literature, and
quite possibly in the Soviet approach to parapsychology
and psychotronics.
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ESP Scores for Subjects who Showed Moderate Annoy-
ance at the ESP Task," J. of Parapsychology, Vol.
18, No. 3, September 1954.
45. Schmeidler, G.R. "Agent-Percipient Relationships,"
J. of the American Society for Psychical Research,
Vol. 52, No. 2, April 1958.
46. Smith, Burke M. and Edmond P. Gibson.
"Conditions
Affecting ESP Performance," J. of Parapsychology,
Vol. 5, No, 1, March 1941.
47. Smith, Burke M. and Betty M. Humphrey.
"Some Per -.
Sonality Characteristics Related to ESP Perfor-
mances," J. of Parapsychology, Vol. 10, No. 4,
December 1946.
48. Stewart, C.E., Betty M. Humphrey, Burke M. Smith
and Elizabeth McMahan. "Personality Measurements
and ESP Tests with Cards and Drawings," J. of
Parapsychology, Vol. 11, No. 2, June 1947.
49. Taddonio, Judith L. "Attitudes and Expectancies in
ESP Scoring," J. of Parapsychology, Vol. 39, No. 4,
December 1975.
50. Taddonio, Judith L. "The Relationship of Experi-
menter Expectancy to Performance on ESP Tasks,"
J. of Parapsychology, Vol. 40, No. 2, June 1976.
51. White, Rhea A. "The Influence of Persons Other
Than the Experimenter on the Subject's Scores in
Psi Experiments," J. of the American Society for
Psychical Research, Vol. 70, No. 2, April 1976.
52. White, Rhea A. "The Limits of Experimenter In-
fluence on Psi Test Results: Can Any be Set?,"
J. of the American Society for Psychical Research,
Vol. 70, No. 4, October 1976.
53. Woodruff, J. L., and Gardner Murphy. "Effect of
Incentives on ESP Visual Perception," J. of Para-
psychology, Vol. 7, No. 3, September 1943.
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EVIDENCE FOR DIRECT INTERACTION BETWEEN THE HUMAN MIND
AND EXTERNAL QUANTUM PROCESSES
HELMUT SCHMIDT
Mind Science Foundation, 102 W. Rector, San Antonio, Texas
78216
Summary - The reported experiments use electronic
equipment to investigate some psychic phenomena which,
during the last 100 years, have been reported by many
researchers. In these experiments, human test sub-
jects try either to predict the outcome of quantum
jumps which, according to current theory should be
unpredictable, or they try mentally to affect the
outcome of these quantum processes. The experiments
confirm the existence of an anomalous interaction be-
tween the human mind and external quantum events, and
draw attention to some of the unusual features of
this interaction.
INTRODUCTION
In 1894, Sir Oliver Lodge"
1
demonstrated the use-
fulness of radio waves for information transmission
but ten years earlier he had already participat-
ed in experiments where messages were transmitted
telepathically over large distances from one person,
the "sender" to another person, the "receiver".
Today, more than 80 years later, we understand
radio waves well, we have a theory in form of Max-
well's Equations, and we have efficient electronic
senders and receivers to make radio waves useful.
The telepathy mechanism, however, is still obscure,
we do not have a satisfactory theory and we have no
electronic transmitters and receivers of telepathic
signals. Nevertheless, the study of telepathy has
already led to a series of quite unexpected discover-
ies. It now appears that telepathy was just the tip
of the iceberg, that it is closely related to a large
family of psychic phenomena, or "psi effects", which
challenge a basic tenet of our everyday and scien-
tific thinking, the axiom of causality.
The first indication that telepathy implies more
than a "mental radio" came from the clairvoyance ex-
periments of Charles Richet2, the famous physiologist.
Richet shocked his collegues by demonstrating that
the "telepathy mechanism" also worked without a human
sender. In these experiments, a human receiver could
successfully identify randomly selected distant pic-
tures and playing cards which were not known to any-
one.
There were more surprising developments to come.
Richet had already wondered whether clairvoyance
could perhaps reach into the future, and later, J. B.
Rhine3 reported that in large scale laboratory ex-
periments, test subjects had indeed, successfully
predicted the order in which the cards in a deck
would appear after shuffling.
Richet based his discussion of "precognition"
on a deterministic world model in which the future
could, in principle, be calculated from the present.
Modern quantum theory on the other hand, suggests
that the future is not completely determined by the
past and that there are processes, the quantum jumps,
which are, in principle, unpredictable. Therefore,
the physicist's most basic question with regard to
precognition is whether human subjects can predict
the outcome of quantum processes, like radioactive
decays. In the next section, I will report some ex-
periments in this direction.
PRECOGNITION OF QUANTUM PROCESSES
For these experiments, I, used a quantum mechan-
ical random number generator+ which utilized the
random timing of radioactive decays as it's basic
source of randomness. A weak source of Strontium 90
was placed near a Geiger tube so that decay parti-
cles were registered at random time intervals at an
average rate of 10 events per second, Connected to
this system, was an electronic modulo-4 counter which
was incremented by a clock at the rate of 10° steps
per second. An arrangement was made that the counter
could be stopped at the time when the Geiger tube
registered the next signal. Then each of the four
possible stopping positions of the counter were prac-
tically equally likely. This is the modulo-4 random
number generator.
In the detailed design of this random number gen-
erator, proper precautions were taken that the ex-
pected variations in component characteristics could
not effect the randomness. Furthermore, frequent
randomness tests>
were alternated with the precog-
nition test sessions. These randomness tests, com-
prising approximately 5 million generated numbers,
evaluated the frequency of each number and of each
possible pair of successive numbers. No permanent
or temporary deviation from randomness was found.
During a precognition test, the subject sat in
front of a panel with four colored lamps, four cor-
responding push buttons and two electric counters
(a trial counter and a hit counter). Before a button
was pressed, the lamps were dark and the internal
modulo-4 counter advanced at the megacycle rate.
If
any button was pressed, nothing happened until the
next decay particle reached the Geiger tube. At this
moment, the modulo-4 counter was stopped and the
random stopping position 1, 2, 3, or 4 was indicated
by the lighting of a corresponding lamp.
The subject tried repeatedly to guess which lamp
would light next and he registered his guess by pres-
sing the corresponding button. If the predicted lamp
did light, a hit was scored. Thus, the subject could
operate at his preferred speed and he received immedi-
ate feedback on the correctness of his predictions.
A punch tape recorder registered automatically the
sequences of guesses and random events so that the
scores given by the display counters could be inde-
pendently checked by a computer. The whole equipment
was transportable so that the subjects could be test-
ed at their own homes under seemingly casual condi-
tions.
The first exploratory experiments done in 1969
with about 100 subjects produced mainly chance
scoring. Only one subject, a physicist who reported
frequent precognitive dreams produced surprisingly
high results. In a follow-up test, this man obtained,
in 7,600 trials, an average success rate of 33.7%,
where the chance expectancy is 25%. The odds against
chance producing such a high or higher score, are
about 10 -: 1. Soon afterwards, I found several
further promising performers among a group of pro-
fessional and amateur psychics, who tried systemati-
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cally to develop certain "psychic abilities". With
these preselected subjects, I did two experiments
aimed only at confirming the existence of abnormal
scoring under rigorously controlled, but pscyhologi-
cally favorable conditions. For these experiments,
I specified the total number of trials to be made
in advance, but I left the subjects the freedom to
work on the machine whenever they wanted (I did
visit them on a moment's notice) and only as long
as they felt: confident. Thus, the total data were
gathered in many short test sessions comprising
sometimes as few as 100 trials. Note that for es-
tablishing the existence of the effect, it was quite
irrelevant how many different subjects contributed
to the total number of trials and how frequently
breaks were taken during the whole experiment.
Three subjects participated in the first confirm-
atory experiment: Mr. K. R. and Mrs. J. B. were
professional psychics and Mr. O. C. was a truck
driver and an amateur psychic. These subjects
completed a total of approximately 63,000 trials at
an average scoring rate of 26.1%. Even though this
scoring rate is only slightly above the chance ex-
pectancy of 25%, the high number of trials makes
this difference statistically highly significant.
The odds against chance producing such a high or a
higher score are about 500 million to one.
For the second confirmatory experiment, K. R.
was no longer available and was replaced by S. C.,
the 16-year old daughter of 0. C. In this experi-
ment, the subjects had the option to aim for either
a large or small number of hits. In the latter case
they tried to push a button corresponding to any
lamp that would not light next. This choice was
made before the beginning of a test session, and
the two types of tests were recorded in different
codes such that the evaluating computer could dis-
tinguish between them. Among the total number of
20,000 trials made, 10,672 trials aiming for a high
score gave 26.8% hits and the remaining trials, aim-
ing for a low hit rate produced only 22.7% hits.
The odds against obtaining this or a better score
by pure chance is more than 10 billion to one
(10- : 1). Figure 1 giving the increase of the
scores with the number of trials, indicates that
the subjects performed rather consistently.
120}
100
J.B. try high score
80
60
O.C. try high score
40
Hits above average
20
O
(000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Number /V of trials
-20
-40
S.C. try low score
-60
-80
J.B. try low score
-100
-120
Fig. 1. Increase of the total scores with the num-
ber of trials in the second confirmatory precognit-
ion test. The numbers of hits above chance expec-
tancy are plotted after each block of 200 trials.
Other researchers could confirm the existence of
the effect' with the same or a similar test machine.
THE PROBLEM OF INTERPRETATION
The reported experiments showed some not yet under-
stood correlation between the subject's prediction
and the later random event, the lighting of a lamp.
This correlation might be interpreted in terms of a
precognition mechanism which permits the subject to
look into the future. Experiments to be reported
later, however, indicate that there exists another
possible mechanism, psychokinesis, which could have
enabled the subjects to affect the outcome of the
random process such as to agree with the prediction.
In an attempt to suppress a psychokinesis mechan-
ism, I replaced the indeterministic random number
generator by a punch tape (hidden in a paper tape
reader) which contained the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 in a
random sequence derived from the RAND tables. The
order of the lamps to be lit was now determined by
this hidden number sequence. Again, significantly
high scores were obtained'. But, even though psycho-
kinesis seemed to be excluded, the experiment did not
isolate a precognition mechanism: Rather than fore-
seeing the lamp to be lit directly, the subject might
have, in this case, used some "clairvoyance mechan-
ism" to read the hidden paper tape.
Further experimental and theoretical work® has
suggested that there may exist only one universal
"psi mechanism" and that it may not be conceptually
meaningful to subdivide psi into separate submech-
anisms. If I label the experiments to be reported
next as psychokinesis (PK) experiments, I want to
characterize only a specific test arrangement rather
than a particular mechanism.
PSYCHOKINESIS EXPERIMENTS
The first systematic experiments which suggested
that the human mind could affect external random
events were conducted by J. B. Rhine3. In these -
experiments people tried to influence mentally, the
outcome of die throws. An attempt to use quantum
processes, radioactive decays, as targets in PK
experiments was made by Beloff and Evensy but no PK
effects were observed. Later, however, Chauvin and
GenthonL'
reported significant results from tests
in which subjects had tried to increase the counting
rate of a Geiger tube exposed to a radioactive
source.
In the following experiments11, I wanted to con-
firm the existence of a PK effect on quantum proces-
ses. Instead of the described four-choice random
number generator, I used a binary random generator
built on the same principle. This "electronic coin-
flipper" could automatically produce a random sequ-
ence of "heads" and "tails", at a typical rate of
one event per second. This sequence was recorded on
paper punch tape, and the numbers of generated heads
and tails were indicated by counters. A display
panel, showing nine lamps in a circle, was connected
to the generator in such a way that one lamp was
always lit and that a generated head or tail made
the light jump one step in the clockwise or counter-
clockwise direction respectively. Thus, the light,
moving at the rate of typically one jump per second
performed a random walk among the nine lamps.
In a standard test run the light started at the
top of the circle, and the generator was set to pro-
duce a sequence of 128 binary events which took
approximately two minutes. The subjects sat in front
of the panel and tried mentally to enforce an over-
all clockwise motion of the light. This task was
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equivalent to forcing the generator into producing
more heads than tails, but usually the subjects
directed their exclusive attention to the display
pane1.
A pilot study with the most easily available sub-
jects showed a negative scoring tendency: if the sub-
jects tried to superimpose an overall clockwise
motion on the random walk of the light, then the
light tended to move in a counter-clockwise direc-
tion. In order to confirm this unexpected effect, I
selected 15 of the most negative scorers to do a total
of 64 sessions, each session comprising four runs of
128 trials. During the test session, the subject sat
next to the display panel and the generator was sta-
tioned in another room approximately 6 meters away
from the subject. In an attempt to preserve or even
amplify the negative scoring tendency of the subjects,
I avoided giving them any encouragement towards suc-
cessful performance and even asked some subjects to
associate feelings of failure and pessimism with the
test.
In the total 32,768 = 215
trials, the light moved
in only 49.1% of the jumps in the desired direction.
This deviation from the 50% chance level is signifi-
cant with odds against chance of 1000:1. To guard
against any bias caused by a potential malfunction of
the generator, I took two precautions. First, I let
the machine run unattended and confirmed the absence
of a systematic bias when there was no human subject
present. Second, after each test run, I interchanged
the two output lines from the generator to the dis-
play panel such that even a constant bias of the gen-
erator could not have led to a systematic bias toward
clockwise or counter-clockwise motion of the light.
The second confirmation of the PK effect could be
done shortly afterwards when two unusual subjects
happened to visit the laboratory: K. G., an outgoing
girl who believed to possess a variety of psychic
abilities, and R. R., a quiet, methodical parapsy-
chology researcher who believed to have the power of
"mental healing". In preliminary tests, K. G. and
R. R. scored exceptionally high and low respectively,
and I proceeded immediatedly to a confirmatory test in
which each subject completed 50 runs of 128 trials
each.
Throughout this experiment, the subjects maintain-
ed their scoring pattern as shown by Figure. 2.
160
1401
Hits above average
120 -
100}
KG as subject
80Ì
60
40|
20
0
2000
4000
6400
20-
Number of trials
40-
60
80
100
120
RR as subject
140-
160L
Fig. 2. Increase of the total scores with the number
of trials for the PK test with two subjects, K. G.
and R. R. The cumulative numbers of hits above
chance are plotted after each section of 256 trials.
When K. G. concentrated on the panel, the lights
showed a preference for the desired clockwise motion
at an average success rate of 52.5% in the 6,400
trials. When R. R. tried to affect the lights however,
they moved generally against his wish. Only 47.75%
of the 6,400 light jumps went in the desired clockwise
direction. The odds against obtaining by chance such
a large or a larger difference between the scores of
the two subjects are more than 10 million to one.
Thus, chance as an explanation of the results can well
be ruled out.
Other experimenters could confirm the existence of
the PK effect with the same or similar equipment12.
PK TESTS WITH A HIGH SPEED RANDOM NUMBER GENERATOR
The collection of data in the reported experiments
was unfortunately, very slow and laborious. Even
after promising subjects had been found, the tests
could not be conducted in a routine manner because
successful scoring seemed to require exceptional men-
tal efforts. Thus, test sessions aiming for positive
scores were held only if the subjects felt eager to
perform and a session was adjourned whenever a subject
showed loss of interest or signs of fatigue.
In an attempt to increase the efficiency of PK
experimenting, I introduced a high speed generator13
which can produce binary random events at rates of up
to 1000 per second. The generator works like the
mentioned electronic coinflipper with the only differ-
ence that the source of randomness is electronic noise
rather than radioactive decay. This change was made
because no sufficiently strong radioactive source was
available to provide the desired high counting rate.
Tests were done at two generation speeds, a "low"
speed of 30 events per second and a "high" speed of
300 per second. The number of trials made per test
run in these two cases were 100 and 1,000 respectively,
so that each run lasted approximately 3 seconds. Two
electronic counters on top of the generator accumulat-
ed the heads and tails produced in each run and the
detailed binary sequence was recorded on magnetic tape
so that the manually recorded counter readings could
be checked by a computer.
During a test run, the subjects received immediate
feedback on their momentary performance by an auditory
or a visual display. The auditory feedback was pro-
vided by a pair of headphones which presented each
generated head or tail as a click in the right or left
ear respectively. For obtaining more heads than tails,
the subject was instructed to concentrate on the right
ear, trying to receive there an increased number of
clicks. The volume of the clicks was usually kept
very low and the subjects would often close their eyes
and listen to the clicks in the target ear as one
would listen to a distant voice in a relaxed, but
alert state. The visual feedback was given by the
needle of a pen chart recorder which was connected so
that each generated head or tail moved the needle by
a small step to the right or left respectively. The
subject concentrated on the statistically fluctuating
needle, trying to move it to the right.
The confirmatory stage in this experiment was con-
ducted with 10 subjects who contributed a total of
40,000 trials (400 runs) at the low speed and 400,000
trials (400 runs) at the high speed. The results with
the visual and auditory feedback were not significant-
ly different and Table 1 gives only the combined
results.
Trial
Speed
Number of
Trials
Hit
Rate
Odds against
Chance
30/sec.
300/sec.
40,000
51.6%
7 x 109 : 1
4 x 105 : 1
400,000
50.37%
Table 1. PK results at generated speeds of 30 and 300
per second.
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We see that; at both speeds, PK effects were pro-
duced rather efficiently in so far as a high statis-
tical significance was obtained within a "pure test
time" of only 400 x 3 seconds = 20 minutes. The find-
ing that the lower generation rate (30 per second) led
to considerably higher scoring on the individual
trials appears plausible since there the subject had
more time to concentrate on the individual events.
One might hope that a high speed PK test arrange-
ment where the subject receives immediate feedback on
his momentary performance could help in training PK
abilities. It should be kept in mind, however, that
PK performance may depend more than most other skills
on subtle psychological factors like the subject's
motivation and confidence. Thus, the main goal of any
PK training program should be the cultivation of a
favorable mental attitude in the subject.
COMPLEXITY INDEPENDENCE OF PK
After we have seen that PK can affect the oper-
ation of electronic random generators, it appears
most natural to ask whether there are some random
generators which are more sensitive to PK efforts
than others. A study of this question should help us
to get a better understanding of the basic PK mech-
anism. The following experiment 14 compares the PK
action on two very different random generators, a
"simple" and a "complex" generator. The complex gen-
erator obtains one binary decision by first gener-
ating a sequence of 100 binary random events and then
taking the majority vote (in the case of a tie, no
decision is made and the test proceeds to the next
trial). The individual decisions come from the de-
scribed fast generator operating at the rate of 30
events per second so that the decision process takes
about 3 seconds. The generator is mounted inside a
closed box which displays only the majority decision,
whereas the information on the detailed outcome of the
individual trials is lost. The simple generator, like
the electronic coinflipper from the first PK experi-
ment, obtains a binary decision in a single step by
the random stopping of a fast modulo-2 counter, In
order to make the two generators behave similarly,
the simple generator is combined inside a closed box
with a delay mechanism so that the binary decision
appears also about three seconds after the system is
activated.
In order to obtain information about the basic PK
mechanism, it was important to test the subjects with
the two generators under the same psychological condi-
tions. Therefore, an arrangement was made that
neither the subject nor the experimenter knew whether
the next trial would be made with one or the other
generator. This decision was provided by a paper
tape containing a long binary random sequence which
was advanced after every trial to the next number.
The subject was seated in a comfortable chair
in front of a red and a green lamp. For each trial,
the subject had to press a button which triggered the
generator selected for this trial. Three seconds
later, the decision of this generator was displayed -
by the lighting of the red or the green lamp. The
subject was instructed, first to visualize vividly a
specified color (green or red), then to press the
button, and finally to make an intense three second
effort to have the specified lamp lit. The random
generators were stationed in a room 15 meters apart
from the subject's room, and all decisions of the two
generators were recorded on paper punch tape.
After some exploratory tests with this arrange-
ment, 35 subjects made a total of approximately 1600
trials on each of the two generators. Table 2 shows
that the scores obtained with both generators are
statistically significant and that there is no statis-
tically significant difference between the scoring
rates on the two generators even though the scores
with the simple generator turned out slightly higher.
Table 2. Comparison of PK scoring rates on the simple
and complex random generator.
Generator
Number of
Trials
Scoring
Rate
Odds against
Chance
Simple
Complex
1695
1606
55.3%
53.8%
90,000 : 1
700 : 1
The similarity of the scores obtained with the two
different generators suggests that, under indentical
psychological conditions, PK might perhaps affect any
two random generators in the same manner.
Let me
formulate such an "equivalence hypothesis" more rigor-
ously as follows:
Consider two binary random generators whose deci-
sions are based on indeterministic quantum processes.
Let each generator be mounted inside a "black box"
with one trigger input and two output lines carrying>
the binary decisions. Assume that the two systems
behave alike so that they are, for the physicist, un-
distinguishable from the outside. Then the equival-
ence hypothesis states that the two systems are also
undistinguishable by PK experiments, i. e., that they
are affected by PK efforts in the same manner.
In the following, we will explore this equivalence
hypothesis further by studying one of its far-reach-
ing implications, the non-causality of the psi mechan-
ism.
NON-CAUSALITY OF THE PK MECHANISM
Compare the following two black box random gener-
ators. The first black box contains our electronic
coinflipper, which is activated once per second by a
timer, so that two output jacks receive binary random
signals at this rate. The other black box contains
an identical coinflipper activated at the same rate,
The generated signals, however, are not sent directly
to the output jacks but rather stored on an endless
magnetic tape from which they are, 24 hours later,
played back to the output jacks. Then each of the
signals which emerge from this generator at the rate
of one per second, was internally generated 24 hours
earlier.
These two black box generators are, from the out-
side, undistinguishable, and if we take the equival-
ence hypothesis seriously, then they should work
equally well in any PK experiment. Note, however,
that if the subject succeeds in a test session with
the second system, if the subject obtains signifi -.
cantly more heads than tails, this requires that the
internal electronic coinflipper developed a bias for
heads 24 hours before the subject made his PK effort.
Thus, it appears that the familiar time sequence of
cause and effect was inverted. Let me next specify
what I mean by "causality" through the following
operational definition:
I will call the world "causal" if, for any measure-
ment on a system, the outcome depends, apart from
pure chance, only on how the system was prepared,
i. e., on what the experimenter did with the system
before the measurement. But if there should exist
systems for which the outcome of a measurement
depends on what the experimenter will do with the
system later, after the measurement, then I would
call the world "non-causal".
In my first exploratory PK experiment to study the
causality question12, a binary random number sequence
was first recorded in the absence of the subject and
the experimenter; and later this sequence was played
back to the subject while he made his PK effort.
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This experiment was done in the following steps:
Step 1: A fast binary random generator was set to
produce runs of 201 events at the generation rate of
20 events per second. A large number of such 10 sec-
ond runs was automatically generated and the resulting
sequences of heads and tails were recorded on the two
channels of cassette tapes. Twelve cassette tapes
holding an average of 140 test runs each were prepar-
ed in this manner. No one was present during the
recording and at this stage no one knew what was
recorded on the tapes.
Step 2: With the help of a random sequence from
the RAND tables, six of the twelve tapes were select-
ed as "PK test tapes" whereas, the other six tapes
were set aside as "control tapes". The RAND sequence
had been previously selected but was unknown to the
experimenter at the time the tapes were recorded.
Step 3:
Several days later, the PK test tapes
with the recorded sequences of heads and tails were
played back to a subject through some display device
while the subject tried to enforce the appearance of
more signals corresponding to heads than to tails.
For three of the tapes, the heads and tails were dis-
played as weak and strong clicks respectively, while
the subject tried to get more weak clicks. For the
other three tapes, the display was given by an instru-
ment needle which was shifted by a head or tail, one
millimeter to the right or left respectively, and
the subject tried to make the needle go to the right.
After each run, a short break was taken and the whole
experiment was spread out over many days.
Step 4: After the subject had worked on all six
PK test tapes, these tapes, as well as the control
tapes, were computer evaluated. Calling a run with
an excess of heads or tails a hit run or a miss run
repectively, the six tapes contained a total of 454
hit runs and 378 miss tuns (54.6% success on the 832
runs) . This result is statistically significant with
odds against chance of more than 200:1. The control
tapes on the other hand, showed no significant devi-
ation from chance scoring: 409 hit runs and 425 miss
runs.
Remember that the two sets of six tapes were pre-
pared under the same conditions. These tapes record-
ed the output of the random generator at a time when
the experimenter did not yet know which tapes would
serve as test tapes or control tapes respectively.
The only differences between the two sets of tapes
was that later, one set was only evaluated by a
computer whereas the other tapes were played back to
the subject while he made a PK effort. Thus the out-
put of the random generator at the recording time was
dependent on what later happened to the tapes. There-
fore, according to our operational definition, we
appear to live in a non-causal world.
Two later experiments15 have confirmed the exist-
ence of the effect and suggest that the PK mechanism
works to about the same degree, no matter whether the
PK effort is being made while the random generator is
running or at some later time.
It seems certainly very surprising that such a
basic effect as the violation of causality should have
escaped all observations in the physics laboratory.
On the other hand, it might be non-causality which
is the earmark of psychic phenomena and which makes
this phenomena, from our causal viewpoint, appear so
mysterious and elusive.
One might wonder whether non-causality as stated
in our operational definition need not lead to a
logically inconsistent world picture. That is not
the case, however, because one can give specific
world models8 which contain non-causal effects sim-
ilar to the described ones and are nevertheless
logically fully consistent. Thus there are no compel-
ling logical reasons against non-causal psi effects.
In the experiments done so far, the pre-recorded
random events sequence was not inspected by anybody
before the subject made his PK effort. As a first
interesting modification, one could change this and
let somebody else, with or without PK abilities of his
own, look at the data before the subject comes into
play. By this and similar modifications of the initial
experiments, in connection with available theoretical
models, we should be able to learn in the future, more
details about the relationship between cause and effect
in the presence of psi processes.
REFERENCES
(1)
JOLLY, W. P., Sir Oliver Lodge, Constable, London,
1974.
(2)
RICHET, CHARLES, Proc. S. P. R., London, 12 June,
1888, and Our Sixth Sense, Rider and Company,
London.
(3)
RHINE, J. B., The Reach of the Mind, New York,
1947, William Sloane Assoc.
(4)
SCHMIDT, H. Quantum Mechanical Random Number
Generator, J. Appl. Phys. 41:462 (1970)
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SCHMIDT, H. New correlation between a human
subject and a quantum mechanical random num-
ber generator, Boeing Scientific Res. Lab-
oratories Document DI-82-0684 (Nov. 1967).
SCHMIDT, H. Quantum Processes Predicted? New
Scientist, London, Oct. 16, 1969, p. 1.14
HARALDSSON, E. Subject selection in a machine
precognition test, J. Parapsychol. 34, 182,
(1970).
(6)
KELLY, E. F. AND KANTHAMANI, B. K. A subject's
effort toward voluntary control, J. Para-
psychology, 36, 185 (1972).
(7)
SCHMIDT, H. Clairvoyance tests with a machine.
J. Parapsychol. 33: 299 (1969).
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(8)
SCHMIDT, H. Toward a mathematical theory of psi,
J. Amer. Soc. Psychical Res., 69, 301 (1975).
BELOFF, J. AND EVANS. L. A radioactivity test of
PK, J. Soc. Psychical Res., 41, 41, (1961).
(10)
CHAUVIN, R. AND GENTHON, J. Eine Untersuchung
Über die Möglichkeit psychokinetischer Exper-
imente mit Uranium und Geigerzahler, Zeit-
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der Psychologie, 8 (1965).
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SCHMIDT, H. Mental influence on random events,
New Scientist and Science Journal, London,
June 24, 1971, pp. 757.
(12)
ANDRE, E. Confirmation of PK action on elec-
tronic equipment, J. Parapsycho1. 36, 283,
(1972).
HONORTON, C. AND BARKSDALE, W. PK performance
with waking suggestions for muscle tension
vs. relaxation, J. Amer. Soc. Psychical Res.
66, 208 (1972).
STANFORD, R., ZENHAUSERN, R., TAYLOR, A. AND
DWYER, M. Psychokinesis as psi mediated instru-
mental response, J. Amer. Soc. Psychical Res.
69, 127 (1975).
(13)
SCHMIDT, H. PK tests with a high speed random
number generator, J. Parapsycho1. 37, 105 (1973)
(14)
SCHMIDT, H. Comparison of PK action on two dif-
ferent random number generators, J. Para-
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SCHMIDT, H. PK effect on pre-recorded targets,
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HEALTH CARE SYSTEM PLANNING: A STATE MODEL SIMULATION
L.C.Agarwal & P.S.Satsangi,
Department of Electrical Engineering &
School of Systems and Management Studies,
Indian Institute of Technology,
New Delhi-110029, INDIA.
Summary
This paper
applies a deterministic compo-
nent-to-system modelling construct of physical
system theory to formulate "relatively non-
interacting" through variable and across var-
iable system state-models for computing flow-
volumes and per unit values of patients in a
community health care system. The model is
parametrized and calibrated for use in health
care planning and resource-allocation through
optimization of a community health effective-
ness-index, in the context of a real-life
health care system represented by the I. I.T.
Delhi Sick Bay
Introduction
The community health is a function of the
state of all its individuals who are concept-
ually identified with one of the four health
states-viz., 0; wellness 1: minor injury or
disease, 2: medium injury or disease, and 3:
major injury or disease. An analysis of the
individual and the community system produces
three major conceptual categories"; these are
basic health needs which are converted into
demands which in turn are satisfied by comm-
unity health resources. Quite frequently the
policy makers and health administrators for
community health organizations, in the absence
of an integrated systems approach, are confr-
onted with resource deployment problems per-
taining to duplication of resources, ineffe-
ctive location of facilities and inefficient
use of personnel etc. Since the health-care
systems are generally faced with greater
demand than they can satisfy, it is of vital
importance to allocate the available resources
in an optimally health-effective manner. A
comprehensive approach to health planning must
be based on the total macrocosm of the com-
unity in which an individual lives- the myriad
of activities that are initiated when an
individual seeks to improve his health-rather
than on his health and use of available health
services.
The health care delivery system has been
conceptualized here as an assemblage of inter-
connected sub-systems or components with each
component-described in terms of two fundamen-
tal complementary variables2,3, 4, 6, 7,9_ a
through variable Y, representing the flow-vol-
umes of "patients" and an across variable X,
representing their per unit values. The var-
ious health service facets conceptualized as
components are: (I) health demand generation
G, (II) week day adjustment W, (III) divertor
A, (IV) diagnosis H, (V) treatment and rehabi-
litation T, (VI) feedback F, (VII) outside
treatment E, (VIII) feedback F., (IX) distri-
butor B, and (X) control C.
Community Health Resource-Measures
The special component C administers all
policy or control through and across variabl-
es in the system (viewed as changes reckoned
from the base period level) which are class-
ified as follows': (a) preventive measures
(R ), (b) social and health characteristics
of the campus environment (R ), (c) health
system resources (R_z), (d) financial assis-
tance policy (R ), (e) health resources
(personnel, material etc) at sick bay (Rt) and
(2) health resources (personnel, material etc)
at the outside health service system (Re).The
first four of these health measures act to
redistribute the "patients" amongst the four
health states of component G and thereby aff-
ect the process of the patient generation.
The last two policy variables influence the
patient transition, by redistributing flow
volumes in patient states, of components T
and E respectively. Also, the improvement of
health resources Rt relative to the base per-
iod, causes redistribution in diagnosed cate-
gories of patients in component H.
State Model Description of System
-Dynamics
Physical system theoretic modelling of the
dynamics of health care system has been duly
described in conceptual and operational terms
of the through-variable and across-variable
system state models2,3,4
As a summary description of the procedure
it is useful to recall that the pertinent be-
havioral characteristics of each N-terminal
component are completely specified by a set of
N-1 terminal aquations of the form of "gener-
alized drivers" relevant to the external
variable measurements of the across and thro-
ugh type implied by the specified terminal
graph. The system graph is obtained operatio-
nally by uniting the vertices of the terminal
graphs, used to model the characteristics of
the components, in a one-to-one correspondence
with the interconnection of the components in
the system5
The system graph furnishes (v-1) linearly
independent cutset equations and (e-v+1) lin-
early independent circuit equations (where e
is the number of edges and v the number of
vertices in the system graph) which together
with the component terminal equations char-
acterize the system completely, such that it
can be described by means of a general disor-
ete-time state-space model , which is in re-
latively decoupled format as shown in equat-
ions (1) through (4) and thus admits of a
sequential solution in which we solve the
through variable model first and the across
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