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A Perceptual Channel for Information Transfer
over Kilometer Distances: Historical Perspective
and Recent Research
HAROLD E. PUTHOFF, MEMBER, IEEE, AND RUSSELL TARG, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE
Abstract -For more than 100 years, scientists have attempted to
determine the truth or falsity of claims for the existence of a perceptual
channel whereby certain individuals are able to perceive and describe
remote data not presented to any known sense. This paper presents an
outline of the history of scientific inquiry into such so-called paranor-
mal perception and surveys the current state of the art in parapsycho-
logical research in the United States and abroad. The nature of this
perceptual channel is examined in a series of experiments carried out
in the Electronics and Bioengineering Laboratory of Stanford Research
Institute. The perceptual modality most extensively investigated is the
ability of both experienced subjects and inexperienced volunteers to
view, by innate mental processes, remote geographical or technical
targets including buildings, roads, and laboratory apparatus. The ac-
cumulated data indicate that the phenomenon is not a sensitive func-
tion of distance, and Faraday cage shielding does not in any apparent
way degrade the quality and accuracy of perception. On the basis of
this research, some areas of physics are suggested from which a descrip-
tion or explanation of the phenomenon could be forthcoming.
I. INTRODUCTION
ITT IS THE PROVINCE of natural science to investigate
nature, impartially and without prejudice" [1]. Nowhere
in scientific inquiry has this dictum met as great a chal-
lenge as in the area of so-called extrasensory perception (ESP),
the detection of remote stimuli not mediated by the usual
sensory processes. Such phenomena, although under scientific
consideration for over a century, have historically been fraught
with unreliability and controversy, and validation of the phe-
nomena by accepted scientific methodology has been slow in
coming. Even so, a recent survey conducted by the British
publication New Scientist revealed that 67 percent of nearly
1500 responding readers (the majority of whom are working
scientists and technologists) considered ESP to be an estab-
lished fact or a likely possibility, and 88 percent held the
investigation of ESP to be a legitimate scientific undertaking
[2].
A review of the literature reveals that although experiments
by reputable researchers yielding positive results were begun
over a century ago (e.g., Sir William Crookes' study of D. D.
Home, 1860's) [3], many consider the study of these phe-
nomena as only recently emerging from the realm of quasi-
science. One reason for this is that, despite experimental
results, no satisfactory theoretical construct had been advanced
to correlate data or to predict new experimental outcomes.
Consequently, the area in question remained for a long time
in the recipe stage reminiscent of electrodynamics before the
Manuscript received July 25, 1975; revised November 7, 1975. The
submission of this paper was encouraged after review of an advance
proposal. This work was supported by the Foundation for Parasensory
Investigation and the Parapsychology Foundation, New York, NY; the
Institute of Noetic Sciences, Palo Alto, CA; and the National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration, under Contract NAS 7-100.
The authors are with the Electronics and Bioengineering Laboratory,
Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, CA 94025.
unification brought about by the work of Ampere, Faraday,
and Maxwell. Since the early work, however, we have seen the
development of information theory, quantum theory, and
neurophysiological research, and these disciplines provide
powerful conceptual tools that appear to bear directly on the
issue. In fact, several physicists (Section V) are now of the
opinion that these phenomena are not at all inconsistent with
the framework of modern physics: the often-held view that
observations of this type are a priori incompatible with known
laws is erroneous in that such a concept is based on the naive
realism prevalent before the development of quantum theory.
In the emerging view, it is accepted that research in this area
can be conducted so as to uncover not just a catalog of inter-
esting events, but rather patterns of cause-effect relationships
of the type that lend themselves to analysis and hypothesis
in the forms with which we are familiar in the physical
sciences. One hypothesis is that information transfer under
conditions of sensory shielding is mediated by extremely
low-frequency (ELF) electromagnetic waves, a proposal that
does not seem to be ruled out by any obvious physical or
biological facts. Further, the development of information
theory makes it possible to characterize and quantify the
performance of a communications channel regardless of
the underlying mechanism.
For the past three years, we have had a program in the
Electronics and Bioengineering Laboratory of the Stan-
ford Research Institute (SRI) to investigate those facets of
human perception that appear to fall outside the range of well-
understood perceptual/processing capabilities. Of particular
interest is a human information-accessing capability that we
call "remote viewing." This phenomenon pertains to the
ability of certain individuals to access and describe, by means
of mental processes, information sources blocked from ordi-
nary perception, and generally accepted as secure against such
access.
In particular, the phenomenon we have investigated most
extensively is the ability of a subject to view remote geograph-
ical locations up to several thousand kilometers distant from
his physical location (given only a known person on whom to
target).1
We have carried out more than fifty experiments
under controlled laboratory conditions with several individuals
whose remote perceptual abilities have been developed suf-
ficiently to allow them at times to describe correctly-often in
great detail-geographical or technical material such as build-
ings, roads, laboratory apparatus, and the like.
As observed in the laboratory, the basic phenomenon appears
to cover a range of subjective experiences variously referred to
' Our initial work in this area was reported in Nature [4], and re-
printed in the IEEE Commun. Soc. Newsletter, vol. 13, Jan. 1975
Copyright @1976 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
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AEROPUERTO RESOURCE TI TO
Zuday + /11 /23
ocean
1:25 - 130
1
Honger of
Airport Blog
grana
concrets
DADA
BRIGHT
gran
Sand
Fig. 1. Airport in San Andres, Colombia, used as remote-viewing target, along with sketch produced by subject
in California.
in the literature as autoscopy (in the medical literature); exteri-
orization or disassociation (psychological literature); simple
clairvoyance, traveling clairvoyance, or out-of-body experience
(parapsychological literature); or astral projection (occult liter-
ature). We choose the term "remote viewing" as a neutral
descriptive term free from prior associations and bias as to
mechanisms.
The development at SRI of a successful experimental pro-
cedure to elicit this capability has evolved to the point where
persons such as visiting government scientists and contract
monitors, with no previous exposure to such concepts, have
learned to perform well; and subjects who have trained over a
one-year. period have performed excellently under a variety of
experimental conditions. Our accumulated data thus indicate
that both specially selected and unselected persons can be
assisted in developing remote perceptual abilities up to a
level of useful information transfer.
.
In experiments of this type, we have three principal findings.
First, we have established that it is possible to obtain signifi-
cant amounts of accurate descriptive information about remote
locations. Second, an increase in the distance from a few
meters up to 4000 km separating the subject from the scene
to be perceived does not in any apparent way degrade the
quality or accuracy of perception. Finally, the use of Faraday
cage electrical shielding does not prevent high-quality descrip-
tions from being obtained.
than fifty experiments with nine subjects carried out in our
own laboratory, which represent a sufficiently stable data base
to permit testing of various hypotheses concerning the func-
tioning of this channel. Finally, in Section V, we indicate
those areas of physics and information theory that appear to
be relevant to an understanding of certain aspects of the
phenomena.
First, however, we present an illustrative example generated
in an early pilot experiment. As will be clear from our later
discussion, this is not a "best-ever" example, but rather a
typical sample of the level of proficiency that can be reached
and that we have come to expect in our research.
Three subjects participated in a long-distance experiment
focusing on a series of targets in Costa Rica. These subjects
said they had never been to Costa Rica. In this experiment,
one of the experimenters (Dr. Puthoff ) spent ten days traveling
through Costa Rica on a combination business/pleasure trip.
This information was all that was known to the subjects about
the traveler's itinerary. The experiment called for Dr. Puthoff
to keep a detailed record of his location and activities, includ-
ing photographs of each of seven target days at 1330 PDT.
A total of twelve daily descriptions were collected before the
traveler's return: six responses from one subject, five from
another, and one from a third.
The third subject who submitted the single response supplied
a drawing for a day in the middle of the series. (The subject's
response, together with the photographs taken at the site, are
shown in Fig. 1). Although Costa Rica is a mountainous
country, the subject unexpectedly perceived the traveler at a
beach and ocean setting. With some misgiving, he described an
To build a coherent theory for the explanation of these
phenomena, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of
what constitutes the phenomena. In this paper, we first briefly
summarize previous efforts in this field in Section II. We then
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PUTHOFF AND TARG: PERCEPTUAL CHANNEL FOR INFORMATION TRANSFER
end (correct). An airport building also was drawn, and shown
to have a large rectangular overhang (correct). The traveler
had taken an unplanned one-day side trip to an offshore island
and at the time of the experiment had just disembarked from a
plane at a small island airport as described by the subject
4000 km away. The sole discrepancy was that the subject's
drawing showed a Quonset-hut type of building in place of the
rectangular structure.
The above description was chosen as an example to illustrate
a major point observed a number of times throughout the
program to be described. Contrary to what may be expected,
a subject's description does not necessarily portray what may
reasonably be expected to be correct (an educated or "safe"
guess), but often runs counter even to the subject's own
expectations.
We wish to stress again that a result such as the above is not
unusual. The remaining submissions in this experiment pro-
vided further examples of excellent correspondences between
target and response. (A target period of poolside relaxation
was identified; a drive through a tropical forest at the base of
a truncated volcano was described as a drive through a jungle
below a large bare table mountain; a hotel-room target descrip-
tion, including such details as rug color, was correct; and so
on.) So as to determine whether such matches were simply
fortuitous-that is, could reasonably be expected on the basis
of chance alone-Dr. Puthoff was asked after he had returned
to blind match the twelve descriptions to his seven target
locations. On the basis of this conservative evaluation proce-
dure, which vastly underestimates the statistical significance
of the individual descriptions, five correct matches were ob-
tained. This number of matches is significant at p = 0.02 by
exact binomial calculation.2
The observation of such unexpectedly high-quality descrip-
tions early in our program led to a large-scale study of the
phenomenon at SRI under secure double-blind conditions (i.e.,
target unknown to experimenters as well as subjects), with
independent random target selection and blind judging. The
results, presented in Sections III and IV, provide strong evi-
dence for the robustness of this phenomenon whereby a
human perceptual modality of extreme sensitivity can detect
complex remote stimuli.
II. BACKGROUND
Although we are approaching the study of these phenomena
as physicists, it is not yet possible to separate ourselves entirely
from the language of the nineteenth century when the labora-
tory study of the paranormal was begun. Consequently, we
continue to use terms such as "paranormal," "telepathy," and
the like. However, we intend only to indicate a process of
information transfer under conditions generally accepted as
secure against such transfer and with no prejudice or occult
assumptions as to the mechanisms involved. As in any other
scientific pursuit, the purpose is to collect the observables that
result from experiments and to try to determine the functional
relationships between these observables and the laws of physics
as they are currently understood.
2 The probability of a correct daily match by chance for any given
transcript is p = +. Therefore, the probability of at least five correct
matches by chance out of twelve tries can be calculated from
12
=
12!
(4)'(6)(12-1)
= 0.02.
Organized research into so-called psychic functioning began
roughly in the time of J. J. Thomson, Sir Oliver Lodge, and
Sir William Crookes, all of whom took part in the founding of
the Society for Psychical Research (SPR) in 1882 in England.
Crookes, for example, carried out his principal investigations
with D. D. Home, a Scotsman who grew up in America and
returned to England in 1855 [3]. According to the notebooks
and published reports of Crookes, Home had demonstrated
the ability to cause objects to move without touching them.
We should note in passing that, Home, unlike most subjects,
worked only in the light and spoke out in the strongest pos-
sible terms against the darkened seance rooms popular at the
time [5].
Sir William Crookes was a pioneer in the study of electrical
discharge in gases and in the development of vacuum tubes,
some types of which still bear his name. Although everything
Crookes said about electron beams and plasmas was accepted,
nothing he said about the achievements of D. D. Home ever
achieved that status. Many of his colleagues, who had not
observed the experiments with Home, stated publicly that they
thought Crookes had been deceived, to which Crookes angrily
responded :
Will not my critics give me credit for some amount of common
sense? Do they not imagine that the obvious precautions, which
occur to them as soon as they sit down to pick holes in my
experiments, have occurred to me also in the course of my pro-
longed and patient investigation? The answer to this, as to all
other objections is, prove it to be an error, by showing where
the error lies, or if a trick, by showing how the trick is per-
formed. Try the experiment fully and fairly. If then fraud be
found, expose it; if it be a truth, proclaim it. This is the only
scientific procedure, and it is that I propose steadily to pursue
[3].
In the United States, scientific interest in the paranormal
was centered in the universities. In 1912, John Coover [6]
was established in the endowed Chair of Psychical Research at
Stanford University. In the 1920's, Harvard University set up
research programs with George Estabrooks and L. T. Troland
[7], [8]. It was in this framework that, in 1930, William
McDougall invited Dr. J. B. Rhine and Dr. Louisa Rhine to
join the Psychology Department at Duke University [9]. For
more than 30 years, significant work was carried out at Rhine's
Duke University Laboratory. To examine the existence of
paranormal perception, he used the now-famous ESP cards
containing a boldly printed picture of a star, cross, square,
circle, or wavy lines. Subjects were asked to name the order
of these cards in a freshly shuffled deck of twenty-five such
cards. To test for telepathy, an experimenter would look at
the cards one at a time, and a subject suitably separated from
the sender would attempt to determine which card was being
viewed.
Dr. J. B. Rhine together with Dr. J. G. Pratt carried out
thousands of experiments of this type under widely varying
conditions [10]. The statistical results from these experiments
indicated that some individuals did indeed possess a paranor-
mal perceptual ability in that it was possible to obtain an
arbitrarily high degree of improbability by continued testing
of a gifted subject.
The work of Rhine has been challenged on many grounds,
however, including accusations of improper handling of statis-
tics, error, and fraud. With regard to the statistics, the general
consensus of statisticians today is that if fault is to be found
in Rhine's work, it would have to be on other than statistical
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most celebrated case of criticism of Rhine's work, that of
G. R. Price [12], ended 17 years after it began when the
accusation of fraud was retracted by its author in an article
entitled "Apology to Rhine and Soal," published in the same
journal in which it was first put forward [13]. It should also
be noted that parapsychological researchers themselves re-
cently exposed fraud in their own laboratory when they
encountered it [14].
At the end of the 1940's, Prof. S. G. Soal, an English mathe-
matician working with the SPR, had carried out hundreds of
card guessing experiments involving tens of thousands of calls
[15]. Many of these experiments were carried out over ex-
tended distances. One of the most notable experiments was
conducted with Mrs. Gloria Stewart between London and
Antwerp. This experiment gave results whose probability of
occurring by chance were less than 10-8. With the publication
of Modern Experiments in Telepathy by Soal and Bateman
(both of whom were statisticians), it appeared that card guess-
ing experiments produced significant results, on the average.3
The most severe criticism of all this work, a criticism diffi-
cult to defend against in principle, is that leveled by the well-
known British parapsychological critic C. E. M. Hansel [17],
who began his examination of the ESP hypothesis with the
stated assumption, "In view of the a priori arguments against
it we know in advance that telepathy, etc., cannot occur."
Therefore, based on the "a priori unlikelihood" of ESP,
Hansel's examination of the literature centered primarily on
the possibility of fraud, by subjects or investigators. He
reviewed in depth four experiments which he regarded as
providing the best evidence of ESP: the Pearce-Pratt distance
series [18]; the Pratt-Woodruff [19] series, both conducted
at Duke; and Soal's work with Mrs. Stewart and Basil Shackle-
ton [15], as well as a more recent series by Soal and Bowden
[20]. Hansel showed, in each case, how fraud could have been
committed (by the experimenters in the Pratt-Woodruff and
Soal-Bateman series, or by the subjects in the Pearce-Pratt
and Soal-Bowden experiments). He gave no direct evidence
that fraud was committed in these experiments, but said, "If
the result could have arisen through a trick, the experiment
must be considered unsatisfactory proof of ESP, whether or
not it is finally decided that such a trick was in fact used" [17,
p. 18]. As discussed by Honorton in a review of the field
[21], Hansel's conclusion after 241 pages of careful scrutiny
therefore was that these experiments were not "fraud-proof"
and therefore in principle could not serve as conclusive proof
of ESP.
Even among the supporters of ESP research and its results,
there remained the consistent problem that many successful
subjects eventually lost their ability and their scores gradually
drifted toward chance results. This decline effect in no way
erased their previous astronomical success; but it was a disap-
pointment since if paranormal perception is a natural ability,
one would like to see subjects improving with practice rather
than getting worse.
One of the first successful attempts to overcome the decline
effect was in Czechoslovakia in the work of Dr. Milan Ryzl, a
chemist with the Institute of Biology of the Czechoslovakian
Academy of Science and also an amateur hypnotist [22].
Through the use of hypnosis, together with feedback and
3Recently, some of the early Soal experiments have been criticized
[16]. However, his long-distance experiments cited here were judged
in a double-blind fashion of the type that escaped the criticism of the
early experiments.
reinforcement, he developed several outstanding subjects, one
of whom, Pavel Stepanek, has worked with experimenters
around the world for more than 10 years.
Ryzl's pioneering work came as an answer to the questions
raised by the 1956 CIBA Foundation conference on extra-
sensory perception. The CIBA Chemical Company has annual
meetings on topics of biological and chemical interest, and
that same year they assembled several prominent parapsy-
chologists to have a state-of-the-art conference on ESP [23].
The conference concluded that little progress would be made
in parapsychology research until a repeatable experiment
could be found; namely, an experiment that different experi-
menters could repeat at will and that would reliably yield a
statistically significant result.
Ryzl had by 1962 accomplished that goal. His primary con-
tribution was a decision to interact with the subject as a per-
son, to try to build up his confidence and ability. His protocol
depended on "working with" rather than "running" his sub-
jects. Ryzl's star subject, Pavel Stepanek, has produced highly
significant results with many contemporary researchers [24]-
[29]. In these experiments, he was able to tell with 60-percent
reliability whether a hidden card was green side or white
side up, yielding statistics of a million to one with only a
thousand trials.
As significant as such results are statistically, the information
channel is imperfect, containing noise along with the signal.
When considering how best to use such a channel, one is led
to the communication theory concept of the introduction of
redundancy as a means of coding a message to combat the
effects of a noisy channel [30]. A prototype experiment by
Ryzl using such techniques has proved to be successful. Ryzl
had an assistant select randomly five groups of three digits
each. These 15 digits were then encoded into binary form and
translated into a sequence of green and white cards in sealed
envelopes. By means of repeated calling and an elaborate
majority vote protocol, Ryzl was able after 19 350 calls by
Stepanek (averaging 9 s per call) to correctly identify all 15
numbers, a result significant at p = 10-15
The hit rate for
individual calls was 61.9 percent, 11 978 hits, and 7372 misses
[31].
Note Added in Proof: It has been brought to our attention
that a similar procedure was recently used to transmit without
error the word "peace" in International Morse Code (J. C.
Carpenter, "Toward the effective utilization of enhanced
weak-signal ESP effects," presented at the Annual Meeting of
the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
New York, NY, Jan. 27, 1975).
The characteristics of such a channel can be specified in
accordance with the precepts of communication theory. The
bit rate associated with the information channel is calculated
from [30]
R = H(x) - Hy(x)
(1)
where H(x) is the uncertainty of the source message containing
symbols with a priori probability pi:
i=1
H(x) =- E pi log2 Pi
(2)
and Hy(x) is the conditional entropy based on the a posteriori
probabilities that a received signal was actually transmitted:
Hy(x) =-
p(i, j) log2 Pi(j).
(3)
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For Stepanek's run, with pi = 2, Pj(j) = 0.619, and an average
time of 9 s per choice, we have a source uncertainty H(x) = 1
bit and a calculated bit rate
R = 0.041 bit/symbol
or
R/T = 0.0046 bit/s.
(Since the 15-digit number (49.8 bits) actually was transmitted
at the rate of 2.9 X 10-4 bit/s, an increase in bit rate by a
factor of about 20 could be expected on the basis of a coding
scheme more optimum than that used in the experiments. See,
for example, Appendix A.)
Dr. Charles Tart at the University of California has written
extensively on the so-called decline effect. He considers that
having subjects attempt to guess cards, or perform any other
repetitious task for which they receive no feedback, follows
the classical technique for deconditioning any response. He
thus considers card guessing "a technique for extinguishing
psychic functioning in the laboratory" [32].
Tart's injunctions of the mid-sixties were being heeded at
Maimonides Hospital, Brooklyn, NY, by a team of researchers
that included Dr. Montague Ullman, who was director of
research for the hospital; Dr. Stanley Krippner; and, later,
Charles Honorton. These three worked together for several
years on experiments on the occurrence of telepathy in dreams.
In the course of a half-dozen experimental series, they found
in their week-long sessions a number of subjects who had
dreams that consistently were highly descriptive of pictorial
material that a remote sender was looking at throughout the
night. This work is described in detail in the experimenters'
book Dream Telepathy [33]. Honorton is continuing work
of this free-response type in which the subject has no precon-
ceived idea as to what the target may be.
In his more recent work with subjects in the waking state,
Honorton is providing homogeneous stimulation to the subject
who is to describe color slides viewed by another person in a
remote room. In this new work, the subject listens to white
noise via earphones and views an homogeneous visual field
imposed through the use of Ping-Pong ball halves to cover the
subject's eyes in conjunction with diffuse ambient illumina-
tion. In this so-called Ganzfeld setting, subjects are again able,
now in the waking state, to give correct and often highly
accurate descriptions of the material being viewed by the
sender [34].
In Honorton's work and elsewhere, it apparently has been
the step away from the repetitive forced-choice experiment
that has opened the way for a wide variety of ordinary people
to demonstrate significant functioning in the laboratory, with-
out being bored into a decline effect.
This survey would be incomplete if we did not indicate
certain aspects of the current state of research in the USSR.
It is clear from translated documents and other sources [35]
that many laboratories in the USSR are engaged in paranormal
research.
Since the 1930's, in the laboratory of L. Vasiliev (Leningrad
Institute for Brain Research), there has been an interest in the
use of telepathy as a method of influencing the behavior of a
person at a distance. In Vasiliev's book Experiments in Mental
Suggestion, he makes it very clear that the bulk of his labora-
tory's experiments were aimed at long-distance communica-
tion combined with a form of behavior modification; for
example, putting people at a distance to sleep through hyp-
nosis [36].
Similar behavior modification types of experiments have been
carried out in recent times by I. M. Kogan, Chairman of the
Bioinformation Section of the Moscow Board of the Popov
Society. He is a Soviet engineer who, until 1969, published
extensively on the theory of telepathic communication [37]-
[40]. He was concerned with three principal kinds of experi-
ments: mental suggestion without hypnosis over short dis-
tances, in which the percipient attempts to identify an object;
mental awakening over short distances, in which a subject is
awakened from a hypnotic sleep at the "beamed" suggestion
from the hypnotist; and long-range (intercity) telepathic com-
munication. Kogan's main interest has been to quantify the
channel capacity of the paranormal channel. He finds that the
bit rate decreases from 0.1 bit/s for laboratory experiments
to 0.005 bit/s for his 1000-km intercity experiments.
In the USSR, serious consideration is given to the hypothesis
that telepathy is mediated by extremely low-frequency (ELF)
electromagnetic propagation. (The pros and cons of this
hypothesis are discussed in Section V of this paper.) In
general, the entire field of paranormal research in the USSR
is part of a larger one concerned with the interaction between
electromagnetic fields and living organisms [41], [42]. At
the First International Congress on Parapsychology and
Psychotronics in Prague, Czechoslovakia, in 1973, for example,
Kholodov spoke at length about the susceptibility of living
systems to extremely low-level ac and de fields. He described
conditioning effects on the behavior of fish resulting from the
application of 10 to 100 uW of RF to their tank [43]. The
USSR take these data seriously in that the Soviet safety re-
quirements for steady-state microwave exposure set limits
at 10 uW/cm2, whereas the United States has set a steady-state
limit of 10 mW/cm2 [44]. Kholodov spoke also about the
nonthermal effects of microwaves on animals' central nervous
systems. His experiments were very carefully carried out and
are characteristic of a new dimension in paranormal research.
The increasing importance of this area in Soviet research was
indicated recently when the Soviet Psychological Association
issued an unprecedented position paper calling on the Soviet
Academy of Sciences to step up efforts in this area [45].
They recommended that the newly formed Psychological
Institute within the Soviet Academy of Sciences and the
Psychological Institute of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
review the area and consider the creation of a new laboratory
within one of the institutes to study persons with unusual
abilities. They also recommended a comprehensive evaluation
of experiments and theory by the Academy of Sciences' Insti-
tute of Biophysics and Institute for the Problems of Informa-
tion Transmission.
.
The Soviet research, along with other behavioristically
oriented work, suggests that in addition to obtaining overt
responses such as verbalizations or key presses from a subject,
it should be possible to obtain objective evidence of informa-
tion transfer by direct measurement of physiological parame-
ters of a subject. Kamiya, Lindsley, Pribram, Silverman,
Walter, and others brought together to discuss physiological
methods to detect ESP functioning, have suggested that a
whole range of electroencephalogram (EEG) responses such as
evoked potentials (EP's), spontaneous EEG, and the contingent
negative variation (CNV) might be sensitive indicators of the
detection of remote stimuli not mediated by usual sensory
processes [46].
Early experimentation of this type was carried out by
Douglas Dean at the Newark College of Engineering. In his
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search for physiological correlates of information transfer, he
used the plethysmograph to measure changes in the blood
volume in a finger, a sensitive indicator of autonomic nervous
system functioning [47]. A plethysmographic measurement
was made on the finger of a subject during telepathy experi-
ments. A sender looked at randomly selected target cards
consisting of names known to the subject, together with names
unknown to him (selected at random from a telephone book).
The names of the known people were contributed by the sub-
ject and were to be of emotional significance to him. Dean
found significant changes in the chart recording of finger
blood volume when the remote sender was looking at those
names known to the subject as compared with those names
randomly chosen.
Three other experiments using the physiological approach
have now been published. The first work by Tart [48], a later
work by Lloyd [49], and most recently the work by the
authors [4] all follow a similar procedure. Basically, a subject
is closeted in an electrically shielded room while his EEG is
recorded. Meanwhile, in another laboratory, a second person
is stimulated from time to time, and the time of that stimulus
is marked on the magnetic-tape recording of the subject's EEG.
The subject does not know when the remote stimulus periods
are as compared with the nonstimulus periods.
With regard to choice of stimulus for our own experimenta-
tion, we noted that in previous work others had attempted,
without success, to detect evoked potential changes in a sub-
ject's EEG in response to a single stroboscopic flash stimulus
observed by another subject [50]. In a discussion of that
experiment, Kamiya suggested that because of the unknown
temporal characteristics of the information channel, it might
be more appropriate to use repetitive bursts of light to increase
the probability of detecting information transfer [51]. There-
fore, in our study we chose to use a stroboscopic flash train of
10-s duration as the remote stimulus.
In the design of the study, we assumed that the application
of the remote stimulus would result in responses similar to
those obtained under conditions of direct stimulation. For
example, when an individual is stimulated with a low-
frequency (< 30 Hz) flashing light, the EEG typically shows
a decrease in the amplitude of the resting rhythm and a
driving of the brain waves at the frequency of the flashes [52].
We hypothesized that if we stimulated one subject in this
manner (a putative sender), the EEG of another subject in a
remote room with no flash present (a receiver) might show
changes in alpha (9-11 Hz) activity and possibly an EEG
driving similar to that of the sender, or other coupling to the
sender's EEG [53]. The receiver was seated in a visually
opaque, acoustically and electrically shielded, double-walled
steel room about 7 m from the sender. The details of the
experiment, consisting of seven runs of thirty-six 10-s trials
each (twelve periods each for 0-Hz, 6-Hz, and 16-Hz stimuli,
randomly intermixed), are presented in [4]. This experiment
proved to be successful. The receiver's alpha activity (9-11 Hz)
showed a significant reduction in average power (-24 percent,
p < 0.04) and peak power (-28 percent, p < 0.03) during
16-Hz flash stimuli as compared with periods of no-flash
stimulus. [A similar response was observed for 6-Hz stimuli
(-12 percent in average power, -21 percent in peak power),
but the latter result did not reach statistical significance.]
Fig. 2 shows an overlay of three averaged EEG spectra from
one of the subject's 36 trial runs, displaying differences in
alpha activity during the three stimulus conditions. Extensive
VOLTAGE - arbitrary units
0
Co
AL 16
5 Hz
10 Hz
15 Hz
Fig. 2. Occipital EEG frequency spectra, 0-20 Hz, of one subject (H.H.)
acting as receiver showing amplitude changes in the 9-11-Hz band as a
function of strobe frequency. Three cases: 0-, 6-, and 16-Hz flashes
(twelve trial averages).
results were produced by system artifacts, electromagnetic
pickup (EMI), or subtle cueing; the results were negative [4].
As part of the experimental protocol, the subject was asked
to indicate a conscious assessment for each trial (via telegraph
key) as to the nature of the stimulus; analysis showed these
guesses to be at chance. Thus arousal as evidenced by signifi-
cant alpha blocking occurred only at the noncognitive level of
physiological response. Hence the experiment provided direct
physiological (EEG) evidence of perception of remote stimuli
even in the absence of overt cognitive response.
Whereas in our experiments we used a remote light flash as a
stimulus, Tart [48] in his work used an electrical shock to
himself as sender, and Lloyd [49] simply told the sender to
think of a red triangle each time a red warning light was
illuminated within his view. Lloyd observed a consistent
evoked potential in his subjects; whereas in our experiments
and in Tart's, a reduction in amplitude and a desynchroniza-
tion of alpha was observed-an arousal response. (If a subject
is resting in an alpha-dominant condition and he is then
stimulated, for example in any direct manner, one will observe
a desynchronization and decrease in alpha power.) We con-
sider that these combined results are evidence for the existence
of noncognitive awareness of remote happenings and that they
have a profound implication for paranormal research.
III. SRI INVESTIGATIONS OF REMOTE VIEWING
Experimentation in remote viewing began during studies
carried out to investigate the abilities of a New York artist,
Ingo Swann, when he expressed the opinion that the insights
gained during experiments at SRI had strengthened his ability
(verified in other research before he joined the SRI program)
to view remote locations [54]. To test Mr. Swann's asser-
tion, a pilot study was set up in which a series of targets from
around the globe were supplied by SRI personnel to the ex-
perimenters on a double-blind basis. Mr. Swann's apparent
ability to describe correctly details of buildings, roads,
bridges, and the like indicated that it may be possible for
a subject by means of mental imagery to access and describe
randomly chosen geographical sites located several miles
from the subject's position and demarcated by some appro-
priate means. Therefore, we set up a research program to
test the remote-viewing hypothesis under rigidly controlled
scientific conditions.
In carrying out this program, we concentrated on what we
considered to be our principal responsibility-to resolve under
control Approved ForRelease 2001/03/20 CIA- RDP96-00787R000200080007ter or not this

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PUTHOFF AND TARG: PERCEPTUAL CHANNEL FOR INFORMATION TRANSFER
class of paranormal perception phenomenon exists. At all
times, we and others responsible for the overall program took
measures to prevent sensory leakage and subliminal cueing and
to prevent deception, whether intentional or unintentional.
To ensure evaluations independent of belief structures of both
experimenters and judges, all experiments were carried out
under a protocol, described below, in which target selection at
the beginning of experiments and blind judging of results at
the end of experiments were handled independently of the
researchers engaged in carrying out the experiments.
Six subjects, designated S1 through S6, were chosen for the
study. Three were considered as gifted or experienced subjects
(S1 through S3), and three were considered as learners (S4
through S6). The a priori dichotomy between gifted and
learners was based on the experienced group having been
successful in other studies conducted before this program
and the learners group being inexperienced with regard to
paranormal experimentation.
The study consisted of a series of double-blind tests with
local targets in the San Francisco Bay Area so that several in-
dependent judges could visit the sites to establish documenta-
tion. The protocol was to closet the subject with an experi-
menter at SRI and at an agreed-on time to obtain from the
subject a description of an undisclosed remote site being
visited by a target team. In each of the experiments, one of
the six program subjects served as remote-viewing subject,
and SRI experimenters served as a target demarcation team at
the remote location chosen in a double-blind protocol as
follows.
In each experiment, SRI management randomly chose a
target location from a list of targets within a 30-min driving
time from SRI; the target location selected was kept blind to
subject and experimenters. The target pool consisted of more
than 100 target locations chosen from a target-rich environ-
ment. (Before the experimental series began, the Director of
the Information Science and Engineering Division, not other-
wise associated with the experiment, established the set of lo-
cations as the target pool which remained known only to him.
The target locations were printed on cards sealed in envelopes
and kept in the SRI Division office safe. They were available
only with the personal assistance of the Division Director who
issued a single random-number selected target card that con-
stituted the traveling orders for that experiment.)
In detail: To begin the experiment, the subject was closeted
with an experimenter at SRI to wait 30 min before beginning
a narrative description of the remote location. A second ex-
perimenter then obtained from the Division Director a target
location from a set of traveling orders previously prepared and
randomized by the Director and kept under his control. The
target demarcation team, consisting of two to four SRI experi-
menters, then proceeded by automobile directly to the target
without any communication with the subject or experimenter
remaining behind. The experimenter remaining with the sub-
ject at SRI was kept ignorant of both the particular target and
the target pool so as to eliminate the possibility of cueing
(overt or subliminal) and to allow him freedom in questioning
the subject to clarify his descriptions. The demarcation team
remained at the target site for an agreed-on 15-min period
following the 30 min allotted for travel.4 During the observa-
tion period, the remote-viewing subject was asked to describe
his impressions of the target site into a tape recorder and to
make any drawings he thought appropriate. An informal com-
parison was then made when the demarcation team returned,
and the subject was taken to the site to provide feedback.
A. Subject S1 : Experienced
To begin the series, Pat Price, a former California police com-
missioner and city councilman, participated as a subject in
nine experiments. In general, Price's ability to describe
correctly buildings, docks, roads, gardens, and the like, includ-
ing structural materials, color, ambience, and activity-often
in great detail-indicated the functioning of a remote per-
ceptual ability. A Hoover Tower target, for example, was
recognized and named by name. Nonetheless, in general, the
descriptions contained inaccuracies as well as correct state-
ments. A typical example is indicated by the subject's drawing
shown in Fig. 3 in which he correctly described a park-like
area containing two pools of water: one rectangular, 60 by
89 ft (actual dimensions 75 by 100 ft); the other circular,
diameter 120 ft (actual diameter 110 ft). He incorrectly indi-
cated the function, however, as water filtration rather than
recreational swimming. (We often observe essentially correct
descriptions of basic elements and patterns coupled with in-
complete or erroneous analysis of function.) As can be seen
from his drawing, he also included some elements, such as
the tanks shown in the upper right, that are not present at the
target site. We also note an apparent left-right reversal, often
observed in paranormal perception experiments.
To obtain a numerical evaluation of the accuracy of the
remote-viewing experiment, the experimental results were
subjected to independent judging on a blind basis by an SRI
research analyst not otherwise associated with the research.
The subject's response packets, which contained the nine
typed unedited transcripts of the tape-recorded narratives
along with any associated drawings, were unlabeled and pre-
sented in random order. While standing at each target loca-
tion, visited in turn, the judge was required to blind rank order
the nine packets on a scale 1 to 9 (best to worst match). The
statistic of interest is the sum of ranks assigned to the target-
associated transcripts, lower values indicating better matches.
For nine targets, the sum of ranks could range from nine to
eighty-one. The probability that a given sum of ranks s or
less will occur by chance is given by [55]
Pr (s or less) =
1
i=n
S
ΣΣ (-1'(*) (i - N - 1)
n - 1
where s is obtained sum of ranks, N is number of assignable
ranks, n is number of occasions on which rankings were made,
and I takes on values from zero to the least positive integer k
in (i - n)/n. (Table I is a table to enable easy application of
the above formula to those cases in which N = n.) The sum in
this case, which included seven direct hits out of the nine, was
16 (see Table II), a result significant at p = 2.9 × 10-5 by
exact calculation.
In Experiments 3, 4, and 6 through 9, the subject was se-
cured in a double-walled copper-screen Faraday cage. The
Faraday cage provides 120-dB attenuation for plane-wave
radio-frequency radiation over a range of 15 kHz to 1 GHz.
For magnetic fields, the attenuation is 68 dB at 15 kHz and
decreases to 3 dB at 60 Hz. The results of rank order judging
4 The first subject (S1) was allowed 30 min for his descriptions, but
it was found that he fatigued and had little comment after the first 15
min. TheApproved ForRelease 2001/03/26"" CIA RDP96:00787R000200080007-7e electrical
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, MARCH 1976
TANK.
THON'S
desi
i
AVE.
ELECT.
DIST.
SENCE YARD!
Giver
110
RAINBOW EFFECTS
100
PLAY
GROUNDS
POOL HOUSE
CONCRETE BLOCK
SERVICE
YARD
000E
FIRE
STATION
PICNIC AREA/
RD.
0
.
n
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3. Swimming pool complex as remote-viewing target. (a) City map of target location. (b) Drawing by Price (S1).
TABLE I
CRITICAL VALUES OF SUMS OF RANKS FOR PREFERENTIAL MATCHING
Number of
Assignable
Ranks (N)
Probability (one-tailed) that the Indicated Sum of Ranks or Less Would Occur by Chance
0.20
0.10
0.05
0.04
0.025
0.01
0.005
0.002
0.001
0.0005
10-4
10~5
10-6
10-7
4
7
6
5
5
5
4
4
5
11
10
9
8
8
7
6
6
5
5
6
16
15
13
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
7
22
20
18
18
17
15
14
12
12
11
9
8
8
29
27
24
24
22
20
19
17
16
15
13
11
9
8
9
37
34
31
30
29
26
24
22
21
20
17
14
12
10
10
46
42
39
38
36
33
31
29
27
25
22
19
16
13
11
56
51
48
47
45
41
38
36
34
32
28
24
20
17
12
67
61
58
56
54
49
47
43
41
39
35
30
25
22
Note: This table applies only to those special cases in which the number of occasions on which objects
are being ranked (n) is equal to the number of assignable ranks (N). Each entry represents the largest
number that is significant at the indicated p-level. Source: R. L. Morris [55].
shielding does not prevent high-quality descriptions from being
obtained.
As a backup judging procedure, a panel of five additional
SRI scientists not otherwise associated with the research were
asked simply to blind match the unedited typed transcripts
(with associated drawings) generated by the remote viewer
against the nine target locations which they independently
visited in turn. The transcripts were unlabeled and presented
in random order. A correct match consisted of a transcript
of a given date being matched to the target of that date. In-
stead of the expected number of 1 match each per judge, the
number of correct matches obtained by the five judges was 7,
6, 5, 3, and 3, respectively. Thus, rather than the expected
total number of 5 correct matches from the judges, 24 such
matches were obtainedved For Release 2001/03/26 :sGIARPROR-9787
B. Subject S4: Learner
This experiment was designed to be a replication of our pre-
vious experiment with Price, the first replication attempted.
The subject for this experiment was Mrs. Hella Hammid, a
gifted professional photographer. She was selected for this
series on the basis of her successful performance as a per-
cipient in the EEG experiment described earlier. Outside of
that interaction, she had no previous experience with apparent
paranormal functioning.
At the time we began working with Mrs. Hammid, she had
no, strong feelings about the likelihood of her ability to suc-
ceed in this task. This was in contrast to both Ingo Swann
who had come to our laboratory fresh from a lengthy and
apparently_succ
"of New York [56] and Pat Price
..
SUN L
-
-
TENNIS COURTS
SHRED of WATER SPRAY
75

PUTHOFF AND TARG: PERCEPTUAL
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337
PEDESTRIAN OVERPASS TARGET
1
Light
C
-CCCC
Fig. 4. Subject Hammid (S4) drawing, described as "some kind of diagonal trough up in the air."
TABLE II
DISTRIBUTION OF RANKINGS ASSIGNED TO TRANSCRIPTS
ASSOCIATED WITH EACH TARGET LOCATION FOR EXPERIENCED
SUBJECT PRICE (SI)
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
Hoover Tower, Stanford
3.4
1
Baylands Nature Preserve, Palo Alto
6.4
1
Radio telescope, Portola Valley
6.4
1
Marina, Redwood City
6.8
1
Bridge toll plaza, Fremont
14.5
6
Drive-in theater, Palo Alto
5.1
1
Arts and Crafts Plaza, Menlo Park
1.9
1
Catholic Church, Portola Valley
8.5
3
Swimming pool complex, Palo Alto
3.4
1
Total sum of ranks
16
(p=2.9x10-5)
who felt that he used his remote-viewing ability in his every-
day life.
In comparison with the latter two, many people are more
influenced by their environment and are reluctant under
public scrutiny to attempt activities that are generally thought
to be impossible. Society often provides inhibition and nega-
tive feedback to the individual who might otherwise have
explored his own nonregular perceptual ability. We all share
an historical tradition of "the stoning of prophets and the
burning of witches" and, in more modern times, the hospitaliza-
tion of those who claim to perceive things that the majority do
scientific rigor, one of our primary tasks as researchers is to
provide an environment in which the subject feels safe to
explore the possibility of paranormal perception. With a new
subject, we also try to stress the nonuniqueness of the ability
because from our experience paranormal functioning appears
to be a latent ability that all subjects can articulate to some
degree.
Because of Mrs. Hammid's artistic background, she was ca-
pable of drawing and describing visual images that she could
not identify in any cognitive or analytic sense. When the target
demarcation team went to a target location which was a
pedestrian overpass, the subject said that she saw "a kind of
trough up in the air," which she indicated in the upper part
of her drawing in Fig. 4. She went on to explain, "If you
stand where they are standing you will see something like
this," indicating the nested squares at the bottom of Fig. 4.
As it turned out, a judge standing where she indicated would
have a view closely resembling what she had drawn, as can be
seen from the accompanying photographs of the target loca-
tion. It needs to be emphasized, however, that judges did not
have access to our photographs of the site, used here for
illustrative purposes only, but rather they proceeded to each
of the target locations by list.
In another experiment, the subject described seeing “an
open barnlike structure with a pitched roof." She also saw
a "kind of slatted side to the structure making light and dark
bars on the wall." Her drawing and a photograph of the
associated bicycle shed target are shown in Fig. 5. (Subjects
are encouraged to make drawings of anything they visualize
and associate with the remote location because drawings they
make are in general more accurate than their verbal description.)
th Price, the results of the nine-
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, MARCH 1976
BICYCLE SHED TARGET
DETAIL OF BICYCLE SHED
1
Wood
Stone
wall
Fig .: 5. Subject Hammid (S4) response to bicycle shed target described as an open "barn-like building" with "slats
on the sides" and a "pitched roof."
TABLE III
DISTRIBUTION OF RANKINGS ASSIGNED TO TRANSCRIPTS ASSOCIATED
WITH EACH TARGET LOCATION FOR LEARNER SUBJECT HAMMID (S4)
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
Methodist Church, Palo Alto
1.9
1
Ness Auditorium, Menlo Park
0.2
1
Merry-go-round, Palo Alto
3.4
1
Parking garage, Mountain View
8.1
2
SRI International Courtyard, Menlo Park
0.2
1
Bicycle shed, Menlo Park
0.1
2
Railroad trestle bridge, Palo Alto
1.3
2
Pumpkin patch, Menlo Park
1.3
1
Pedestrian overpas's, Palo Alto
5.0
2
Total sum of ranks
13
(p=1.8x10-6)
Again, as a backup judging procedure, a panel of five addi-
tional judges not otherwise associated with the research
were asked simply to blind match the unedited typed tran-
scripts and associated drawings generated by the remote viewer,
against the nine target locations which they independently
visited in turn. A correct match consisted of a transcript of
a given date being matched to the target of that date. In-
stead of the expected number of 1 match each per judge,
the number of correct matches obtained by the five judges
was 5, 3, 3, 2, and 2, respectively. Thus, rather than the ex-
pected total number of 5 correct matches from the judges,
15 such matches were obtained.
C. Subjects S2 and S3: Experienced
Having completed a series of 18 remote-viewing experiments,
9 each with experienced subject S1 (Price) and learner S4
(Hammid), additional replication experiments, four with each
subject, were carried out with experienced subjects S 2 (Elgin)
and S3 (Swann) and learners S 5 and S6. To place the judging
on a basis comparable to that used with S1 and S4, the four
transcripts each of experienced subjects S2 and S3 were com-
bined into a group of eight for rank order judging to be com-
pared with the similarly combined results of the learners
S5 and S6.
experiment series were submitted for independent judging on
a blind basis by an SRI research analyst not otherwise associ-
ated with the research. While at each target location, visited
in turn, the judge was required to blind rank order the nine
unedited typed manuscripts of the tape-recorded narratives,
along with any associated drawings generated by the remote
viewer, on a scale 1 to 9 (best to worst match). The sum of
The series with S2 (Elgin, an SRI research analyst) provided
a further example of the dichotomy between verbal and draw-
ing responses. (As with medical literature, case histories often
are more illuminating than the summary of results.) The ex-
ranks assigned to the target-associated transcripts in this case
was 13, a result significant at p = 1.8 × 10-6 by exact calcula-
tion (see Table I and discussion), and included five direct hits
and fou
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. .. .

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TARGET-TENNIS COURTS
Windows
P
0
Fig. 6. Subject Elgin (S2) drawings in response to tennis court target.
subject. It was a demonstration experiment for a government
visitor who had heard of our work and wanted to evaluate our
experimental protocol.
In the laboratory, the subject, holding a bearing compass at
arm's length, began the experiment by indicating the direction
of the target demarcation team correctly to within 5°. (In all
four experiments with this subject, he has always been within
10° of the correct direction in this angular assessment.) The
subject then generated a 15-min tape-recorded description and
the drawings shown in Fig. 6.
In discussing the drawings, Elgin indicated that he was
uncertain as to the action, but had the impression that the
demarcation team was located at a museum (known to him)
in a particular park. In fact, the target was a tennis court lo-
cated in that park about 90 m from the indicated museum.
Once again, we note the characteristic (discussed earlier) of a
resemblance between the target site and certain gestalt ele-
ments of the subject's response, especially in regard to the
drawings, coupled with incomplete or erroneous analysis of
the significances. Nonetheless, when rank ordering transcripts
1 through 8 at the site, the judge ranked this transcript as 2.
This example illustrates a continuing observation that most of
the correct information related to us by subjects is of a non-
analytic nature pertaining to shape, form, color, and material
rather than to function or name.
A second example from this group, generated by S3 (Swann),
indicates the level of proficiency that can be attained with
practice. In the two years since we first started working with
1
experiments, he dictates two lists for us to record. One list
contains objects that he "sees," but does not think are located
at the remote scene. A second list contains objects that he
thinks are at the scene. In our evaluation, he has made much
progress in this most essential ability to separate memory
and imagination from paranormal inputs. This is the key to
bringing the remote-viewing channel to fruition with regard to
its potential usefulness.
The quality of transcript that can be generated by this pro-
cess is evident from the results of our most recent experiment
with Swann. The target location chosen by the usual double-
blind protocol was the Palo Alto City Hall. Swann described a
tall building with vertical columns and "set in" windows. His
sketch, together with the photograph of the site, is shown in
Fig. 7. He said there was a fountain, "but I don't hear it."
At the time the target team was at the City Hall during the
experiment, the fountain was not running. He also made an
effort to draw a replica of the designs in the pavement in front
of the building, and correctly indicated the number of trees
(four) in the sketch.
For the entire series of eight, four each from S2 and S3, the
numerical evaluation based on blind rank ordering of tran-
scripts at each site was significant at p = 3.8 X 10-4 and in-
cluded three direct hits and three second ranks for the target-
associated transcripts (see Table IV).
D. Subjects S5 and S6: Learners
To complete the series, four experiments each were carried
out with learner subjects S5 and S6, a man and woman on the
Swann, Approved Fons Release 2001/03/26 . CIA RDB96.00787R000200080007-7e, taken as a
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TABLE IV
DISTRIBUTION OF RANKINGS ASSIGNED TO TRANSCRIPTS ASSOCIATED
WITH EACH TARGET LOCATION FOR EXPERIENCED SUBJECTS ELGIN (S2)
AND SWANN (S3)
Subject
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
S2
BART Station (Transit System), Fremont
16.1
1
$2
Shielded room, SRI, Menlo Park
0.1
2
S2
Tennis court, Palo Alto
3.4
2
S2
Golf course bridge, Stanford
3.4
2
S3
City Hall, Palo Alto
2.0
1
S3
Miniature golf course, Menlo Park
3.0
1
S3
Kiosk in park, Menlo Park
0.3
3
S3
Baylands Nature Preserve, Palo Alto
6.4
3
Total sum of ranks
15
(p=3.8x10-4)
TABLE V
DISTRIBUTION OF RANKINGS ASSIGNED TO TRANSCRIPTS ASSOCIATED
WITH EACH TARGET LOCATION FOR LEARNER SUBJECTS S5 AND S6
Subject
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
S5
Pedestrian overpass, Palo Alto
5.0
3
S5
Railroad trestle bridge, Palo Alto
1.3
6
$5
Windmill, Portola Valley
8.5
2
55, S6
White Plaza, Stanford (2)
3.8
1
S6
Airport, Palo Alto
5.5
2
2
S6
Kiosk in Park, Menlo Park
0.3
5
S6
Boathouse, Stanford
4.0
1
Total sum of ranks
20
(p=0.08, NS)
vious experience in remote viewing, began to describe a large
square with a fountain. Four minutes into the experiment,
she recognized the location and correctly identified it by name
(see Fig. 8). (It should be noted that in the area from which
the target locations were drawn there are other fountains
as well, some of which were in the target pool.) As an ex-
ample of the style of the narratives generated during remote
viewing with inexperienced subjects and of the part played by
the experimenter remaining with the subject in such a case,
we have included the entire unedited text of this experiment
as Appendix B.
E. Normal and Paranormal: Use of Unselected Subjects in
Remote Viewing
After more than a year of following the experimental pro-
tocol described above and observing that even inexperienced
subjects generated results better than expected, we initiated a
series of experiments to explore further whether individuals
other than putative "psychics" can demonstrate the remote-
viewing ability. To test this idea, we have a continuing pro-
gram to carry out additional experiments of the outdoor type
with new subjects whom we have no a priori reason to believe
have paranormal perceptual ability. To date we have collected
data from five experiments with two individuals in this cate-
gory: a man and a woman who were visiting government
scientists interested in observing our experimental protocols.
The motivation for these particular experiments was twofold.
First, the experiments.
One of the direct hits, which occurred with subject S6 in her
first experiment, provides an example of the "first-time effect"
that has been rigorously explored and is well-known to experi-
menters in the field [57]. The outbound experimenter
obtained, by random protocol from the pool, a target blind
to the experimenter with the subject, as is our standard pro-
cedure, and proceeded to the location. The subject, a mathe-
matician Approved FomReleasey2001/03626 .: CJA-RDP96-09787R00020008odbatethe level of
expected from unselected volunteers.
wall
cross weeks.
C
or
basket ball count .
open
filed .
Section
CROSS
walks
?
Selvom
13 No 29.
1040 KM.
Proture
from withd
?
flach of green!
plage -whil
trees ?
a counter & som est .
a walk helt the trees
lawns.
anapon fuld.
an auclosed ona game sort.
a guad .
I long bulding
afountain.
but I don't have
welke tras
lawn
Fig. 7. Subject Swann (S3) response to City Hall target.
group, did not differ significantly from chance. For the series
of eight (judged as a group of seven since one target came up
twice, once for each subject), the numerical evaluation based
on blind rank ordering of transcripts at each site was non-
significant at p = 0.08, even though there were two direct hits
and two second ranks out of the seven (see Table V).
munactions porjamese
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-
of
somewhat way
Some landscaping
grass
small - medium trees
a few flower
Fig. 8. Subject (S6) drawing of White Plaza, Stanford University. Sub-
ject drew what she called "curvy benches" and then announced cor-
rectly that the place was "White Plaza at Stanford."
Second, when an individual observes a successful demonstra-
tion experiment involving another person as subject, it inevi-
tably occurs to him that perhaps chicanery is involved. We
have found the most effective way to settle this issue for the
observer is to have the individual himself act as a subject so as
to obtain personal experience against which our reported
results can be evaluated.
The first visitor (V1) was invited to participate as a subject
in a three-experiment series. All three experiments contained
elements descriptive of the associated target locations; the
quality of response increased with practice. The third re-
sponse is shown in Fig. 9, where again the pattern elements in
the drawing appeared to be a closer match than the subject's
white
some sort of structure of
thing on top of againdage
rod in a general sense like
Grounded done-type top
lightening rod
TOP VIEW
medium dankuns thing
cod black & brassy
RESPONSES OF VISITING
SCIENTIST SUBJECT
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MEMO
TECHNOLOGY SERIES
TYPEWRITER TARGET
Shows to resolve into 2 ports
are sitting on top of the arter -
a machine in 2 parts.
white on the side.
see the flor now - linge
1623
3lits of slots
matil
Lu colored
-dock wass
dak?
0
0
0
2
the Bigte med lineside
SUBJECT SWANN (S3) RESPONSE
Goes
SUBJECT HAMMID (S4) RESPONSE
Fig. 10. Drawings of a typewriter target by two subjects.
The second visitor [V2] participated as a subject in two ex-
periments. In his first experiment, he generated one of the
higher signal-to-noise results we have observed. He began
his narrative, "There is a red A-frame building and next to it
is a large yellow thing [a tree-Editor]. Now further left
there is another A-shape. It looks like a swing-set, but it is
pushed down in a gully so I can't see the swings." [All cor-
rect.] He then went on to describe a lock on the front door
that he said "looks like it's made of laminated steel, so it
must be a Master lock." [ Also correct.]
For the series of five-three from the first subject and two
from the second-the numerical evaluation based on blind
rank ordering of the transcripts at each site was significant at
p = 0.017 and included three direct hits and one second rank
for the target-associated transcripts. (See Table VI.)
TABLE VI
DISTRIBUTION OF RANKINGS ASSIGNED TO TRANSCRIPTS ASSOCIATED WITH
EACH TARGET LOCATION FOR VISITOR SUBJECTS VI AND V2
Subject
Target Location
Distance
(km)
Rank of
Associated
Transcript
v1
Bridge over stream, Menlo Park
0.3
1
v1
Baylands Nature Preserve, Palo Alto
6.4
2
V1
Merry-go-round, Palo Alto
3.4
1
V2
Windmill, Portola Valley
8.5
1
V2
Apartment swimming pool, Mountain View
9.1
3
Total sum of ranks
8
(p=0.017)
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343
0 1
TARGET LOCATION: XEROX MACHINE
(TECHNOLOGY SERIES)
TO ADD INTEREST TO TARGET
LOCATION EXPERIMENTER WITH
HIS HEAD BEING XEROXED
rolling along
table
It turns ?
dark brown re marion
*
Fig. 11. Drawings by three subjects (S2, S3, and V3) for Xerox machine target. When asked to describe the square at upper left of response on
the right, subject (V3) said, "There was this predominant light source which might have been a window, and a working surface which might have
been the sill, or a working surface or desk." Earlier the subject had said, "I have the feeling that there is something silhouetted against the
window."
Observations with unselected subjects such as those de-
scribed above indicate that remote viewing may be a latent and
widely distributed perceptual ability.
F. Technology Series: Short-Range Remote Viewing
Because remote viewing is a perceptual ability, we consid-
ered it important to obtain data on its resolution capabilities.
To accomplish this, we turned to the use of indoor techno-
logical targets.
Twelve experiments were carried out with five different sub-
jects, two of whom were visiting government scientists. They
were told that one of the experimenters would be sent by
random protocol to a laboratory within the SRI complex and
that he would interact with the equipment or apparatus at
that location. It was further explained that the experimenter
remaining with the subject was, as usual, kept ignorant of the
contents of the target pool to prevent cueing during question-
ing. (Unknown to subjects, targets in the pool were used with
replacement; one of the goals of this particular experiment was
to obtain multiple responses to a given target to investigate
whether correlation of a number of subject responses would
provide enhancement of the signal-to-noise ratio.) The sub-
ject was asked to describe the target both verbally (tape
recorded) and by means of drawings during a time-synchronized
15-min interval in which the outbound experimenter inter-
acted in an appropriate manner with the equipment in the
target area.
In the twelve experiments, seven targets were used: a drill
press, Xerox machine, video terminal, chart recorder, four-
state random number generator, machine shop, and type-
writer. Three of these were used twice (drill press, video
terminal, and typewriter) and one (Xerox machine) came up
Comparisons of the targets and subject drawings for three of
the multiple-response cases (the typewriter, Xerox machine,
and video terminal) are shown in Figs, 10, 11, and 12. As is
apparent from these illustrations alone, the experiments
provide circumstantial evidence for an information channel
of useful bit rate. This includes experiments in which visit-
ing government scientists participated as subjects (Xerox
machine and video terminal) to observe the protocol. In
general, it appears that use of multiple-subject responses to a
single target provides better signal-to-noise ratio than target
identification by a single individual. This conclusion is borne
out by the judging described below.
Given that in general the drawings constitute the most
accurate portion of a subject's description, in the first judging
procedure a judge was asked simply to blind match only the
drawings (i.e., without tape transcripts) to the targets. Multiple-
subject responses to a given target were stapled together, and
thus seven subject-drawing response packets were to be
matched to the seven different targets for which drawings were
made. The judge did not have access to our photographs of
the target locations, used for illustration purposes only, but
rather proceeded to each of the target locations by list. While
standing at each target location, the judge was required to rank
order the seven subject-drawing response packets (presented in
random order) on a scale 1 to 7 (best to worst match). For
seven targets, the sum of ranks could range from 7 to 49. The
sum in this case, which included 1 direct hit and 4 second
ranks out of the 7 (see Table VII) was 18, a result significant
at p = 0.036.
In the second more detailed effort at evaluation, a visiting
scientist selected at random one of the 12 data packages (a
drill press experiment), sight unseen and submitted it for in-
engineer with a request for an esti-
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TARGET: VIDEO MONITOR FOR TEXT EDITING (TECHNOLOGY SERIES)
Side
all mat Black
6
5
Bright
window
TI Salat 700?
1
10
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12. Drawing by two subjects of a video monitor target. (a) Subject (S4) drawing of "box with light coming out of it . .. painted flat black
and in the middle of the room." (b) Second subject (V2) saw a computer terminal with relay racks in the background.
TABLE VII
DISTRIBUTION OF RANKINGS ASSIGNED TO SUBJECT
DRAWINGS ASSOCIATED WITH EACH TARGET LOCATION
Subject
Target
Rank of
Associated
Drawings
S3, S4
Drill press
2
N
S2, S3, V3
Xerox machine
2
S4, V2
Video terminal
1
53
Chart recorder
2
S4
Random number generator
6
S4
Machine shop
3
S3, S4
Typewriter
2
Total sum of ranks
18
(p=0.036)
TABLE VIII
SUMMARY: REMOTE VIEWING
Subject
Number of
Experiments
p-Value, Rank
Order Judging
With natural targets
Sl (experienced)
9
2.9 x 10-5
S2 and S3 (experienced)
8
3.8 x 10 4
S4 (learner)
9
1.8 x 10 6
S5 and S6 (learners)
8
0.08 (NS)
V1 and V2 (learners/visitors)
5
in
0.017
With technology targets
S2, S3, S4, V2, V3
12
0.036
tabulation of the statistical evaluations of these fifty-one ex-
periments with nine subjects is presented in Table VIII. The
overall result, evaluated conservatively on the basis of a
judging procedure that ignores transcript quality beyond that
necessary to rank order the data packets (vastly underestimat-
ing the statistical significance of individual descriptions),
clearly indicates the presence of an information channel of
useful bit rate. Furthermore, it appears that the principal
difference between experienced subjects and inexperienced
volunteers is not that the latter never exhibit the faculty, but
rather that their results are simply less reliable, more sporadic.
Nevertheless, as described earlier, individual transcripts from
the inexperienced group of subjects number among some of
the best obtained. Such observations indicate a hypothesis
that remote viewing may be a latent and widely distributed
..
mate as to what was being described. The analyst, blind as to
the target and given only the subject's taped narrative and
drawing (Fig. 13), was able, from the subject's description
alone, to correctly classify the target as a "man-sized vertical
boring machine."'
G. Summary of Remote Viewing Results
1) Discussion.
The descriptions supplied by the subjects
in the experiments involving remote viewing of natural targets
or laboratory apparatus, although containing inaccuracies,
were sufficiently, accurate to permit the judges to differentiate
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BELT DRIVE FOR DRILL
PRESS (CAN BE SEEN ONLY
FROM ABOVE MACHINE)
TARGET: DRILL PRESS
(TECHNOLOGY SERIES)
2 camas
Light
RestoBl
Wh .J
Black
Fig. 13. Subject (S4) drawing of drill press showing belt drive, stool,
and a "vertical graph that goes up and down."
Thus the primary achievement of the SRI program was the
elicitation of high-quality remote viewing from individuals
who agreed to act as subjects. Criticism of this claim could
in principle be put forward on the basis of three potential
flaws. 1) The study could involve naiveté in protocol that
permits various forms of cueing, intentional or unintentional.
2) The experiments discussed could be selected out of a larger
pool of experiments of which many are of poorer quality.
3) Data for the reported experiments could be edited to show
only the matching elements, the nonmatching elements being
discarded.
All three criticisms, however, are invalid. First, with regard
to cueing, the use of double-blind protocols ensures that none
of the persons in contact with the subject can be aware of the
target. Second, selection of experiments for reporting did not
take place; every experiment was entered as performed on a
master log and is included in the statistical evaluations. Third,
data associated with a given experiment remain unedited; all
experiments are tape recorded and all data are included un-
edited in the data package to be judged and evaluated.
In the process of judging-attempting to match transcripts
against targets on the basis of the information in the
transcripts-some patterns and regularities in the transcript
descriptions became evident, particularly regarding individual
styles in remote viewing and in the perceptual form of the
descriptions given by the subjects. These patterns and the
judging procedure are discussed below.
a) Styles of response: The fifty-one transcripts were
taken from nine different subjects. Comparing the tran-
scripts of one subject with those of another revealed that each
pattern tended to focus on certain aspects of the remote
target complex and to exclude others, so that each had an
individual pattern of response, like a signature.
Subject S3, for example, frequently responded with topo-
graphical descriptions, maps, and architectural features of the
target locations. Subject S2 often focused on the behavior of
the remote experimenter or the sequence of actions he carried
out at the target. The transcripts of subject S4, more than
those of other subjects, had descriptions of the feel of the lo-
cation, and experiential or sensory gestalts-for example,
light/dark elements in the scene and indoor/outdoor and
enclosed/open distinctions. Prominent features of S1's tran-
scripts were detailed descriptions of what the target persons
were concretely experiencing, seeing, or doing-for example,
standing on asphalty blacktop overlooking water; looking at
a purple iris.
The range of any individual subject's responses was wide.
Anyone might draw a map or describe the mood of the remote
experimenter, but the consistency of each subject's overall
approach suggests that just as individual descriptions of a
directly viewed scene would differ, so these differences also
occur in remote-viewing processes.
b) Nature of the description: The concrete descriptions
that appear most commonly in transcripts are at the level of
subunits of the overall scene. For example, when the target
was a Xerox copy machine, the responses included (S2) a
rolling object (the moving light) or dials and a cover that is
lifted (S3), but the machine as a whole was not identified by
name or function.
In a few transcripts, the subjects correctly identified and
named the target. In the case of a computer terminal, the
subject (V2) apparently perceived the terminal and the relay
racks behind it. In the case of targets which were Hoover
Tower and White Plaza, the subjects (S1 and S6, respectively)
seemed to identify the locations through analysis of their
initial images of the elements of the target.
There were also occasional incorrect identifications. Gestalts
were incorrectly named; for example, swimming pools in a
park were identified as water storage tanks at a water filtration
plant (S1).
The most common perceptual level was thus an intermediate
one-the individual elements and items that make up the tar-
get. This is suggestive of a scanning process that takes sample
perceptions from within the overall environment.
When the subjects tried to make sense out of these fragmen-
tary impressions, they often resorted to metaphors or con-
structed an image with a kind of perceptual inference. From
a feeling of the target as an "august" and "solemn" building,
a subject (S4) said it might be a library; it was a church. A
pedestrian overpass above a freeway was described as a conduit
(S4). A rapid transit station, elevated above the countryside,
was associated with an observatory (S2). These responses
seem to be the result of attempts to process partial informa-
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tion: similarly, this occurs in other parapsychological experi-
ments. These observations are compatible with the hypotheses
that information received in a putative remote-viewing mode
is processed piecemeal in pattern form (consistent with a low
bit rate process, but not necessarily requiring it); and the
errors arise in the processes of attempted integration of the
data into larger patterns directed toward verbal labeling.
When the subjects augmented the verbal transcripts with
drawings or sketches, these often expressed the target elements
more accurately than the verbal descriptions. Thus the draw-
ings tended to correspond to the targets more clearly and
precisely than the words of the transcript.
The descriptions given by the subjects sometimes went be-
yond what the remote experimenter experienced, at least con-
sciously. For example, one subject (S4) described and drew
a belt drive at the top of a drill press that was invisible even to
the remote experimenter who was operating the machine;
another subject ($1) described a number of items behind
shrubbery and thus not visible to members of the demarcation
team at the site.
Curiously, objects in motion at the remote site were rarely
mentioned in the transcript. For example, trains crossing the
railroad trestle target were not described, though the remote
experimenter stood very close to them.
Also in a few cases, the subject descriptions were inaccurate
regarding size of structures. A 20-ft courtyard separating two
buildings was described as 200 ft wide, and a small shed was
expanded to a barn+like structure.
c) Blind judging of transcripts: The judging procedure
entailed examiningj the transcripts for a given experimental
series and attempting to match the transcripts with the cor-
rect targets on the basis of their correspondences. The tran-
scripts varied from coherent and accurate descriptions to mix-
tures of correspondences and noncorrespondences. Since the
judge did not know a priori which elements of the descriptions
were correct or incorrect, the task was complicated, and tran-
scripts often seemed plausibly to match more than one target.
A confounding factor in these studies is that some target lo-
cations have similarities that seem alike at some level of per-
ception. For example, a radio telescope at the top of a hill,
the observation deck of a tower, and a jetty on the edge of a
bay all match a transcript description of "looking out over a
long distance." A lake, a fountain, and a creek may all result
in an image of water for the subject. Therefore, in several
cases, even correct images may not help in the conservative
differential matching procedure used.
According to the judge, the most successful procedure was a
careful element-by-element comparison that tested each tran-
script against every target and used the transcript descriptions
and drawings as arguments for or against assigning the tran-
script to a particular target. In most cases, this resulted in
either a clear conclusion or at least a ranking of probable
matches; these matches were subjected to the statistical
analyses presented in this paper.
2) Summary: In summary, we do not yet have an under-
standing of the nature of the information-bearing signal that a
subject perceives during remote viewing. The subjects com-
monly report that they perceive the signal visually as though
they were looking at the object or place from a position in its
immediate neighborhood. Furthermore, the subjects' per-
ceptual viewpoint has mobility in that they can shift their
point of view so as to describe elements of a scene that would
not be visible to an observer merely standing at ground level
and describing what he sees. (In particular, a subject often
correctly describes elements not visible to the target demarca-
tion team.) Finally, motion is seldom reported; in fact,
moving objects often are unseen even when nearby static
objects are correctly identified.
A comparison of the results of remote viewing (a so-called
free-response task) with results of forced-choice tasks, such as
the selection of one of four choices generated by a random
number generator [58], reveals the following findings. From a
statistical viewpoint, a subject is more likely to describe, with
sufficient accuracy to permit blind matching, a remote site
chosen at random than he is to select correctly one of four
random numbers. Our experience with these phenomena leads
us to consider that this difference in task performance may
stem from fundamental signal-to-noise considerations. Two
principal sources of noise in the system apparently are mem-
ory and imagination, both of which can give rise to mental
pictures of greater clarity than the target to be perceived. In
the random number task, a subject can create a perfect mental
picture of each of the four possible outputs in his own imagi-
nation and then attempt to obtain the correct answer by a
mental matching operation. The same is true for card guessing
experiments. On the other hand, the subject in remote view-
ing is apparently more likely to approach the task with a
blank mind as he attempts to perceive pictorial information
from remote locations about which he may have no stored
mental data.
Finally, we observe that most of the correct information
that subjects relate to us is of a nonanalytic nature pertaining
to shape, form, color, and material rather than to function or
name. In consultation with Dr. Robert Ornstein of the Langley-
Porter Neuropsychiatric Institute, San Francisco, CA, and with
Dr. Ralph Kiernan of the Department of Neurology, Stanford
University Medical Center, Stanford, CA, we have formed
the tentative hypothesis that paranormal functioning may
involve specialization characteristic of the brain's right hemi-
sphere. This possibility is derived from a variety of evidence
from clinical and neurosurgical sources which indicate that the
two hemispheres of the human brain are specialized for dif-
ferent cognitive functions. The left hemisphere is predomi-
nantly active in verbal and other analytical functioning and the.
right hemisphere predominates in spatial and other holistic
processing [59], [60]. Further research is necessary to
elucidate the relationship between right hemisphere function
and paranormal abilities. Nonetheless, we can say at this
point that the remote-viewing results of the group of subjects
at SRI have characteristics in common with more familiar
performances that require right hemispheric function. The
similarities include the highly schematicized drawings of ob-
jects in a room or of remote scenes. Verbal identification of
these drawings is often highly inaccurate and the drawings
themselves are frequently left-right reversed relative to the
target configuration. Further, written material generally is
not cognized. These characteristics have been seen in left
brain-injured patients and in callosal-sectioned patients.
As a result of the above considerations, we have learned to
urge our subjects simply to describe what they see as opposed
to what they think they are looking at. We have learned that
their unanalyzed perceptions are almost always a better guide
to the true target than their interpretations of the perceived
data.
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IV. CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING TIME
If the authors may be forgiven a personal note, we wish to
express that this section deals with observations that we have
been reluctant to publish because of their striking apparent in-
compatibility with existing concepts. The motivating factor
for presenting the data at this time is the ethical consideration
that theorists endeavoring to develop models for paranormal
functioning should be apprised of all the observable data if
their efforts to arrive at a comprehensive and correct descrip-
tion are to be successful.
During the course of the experimentation in remote viewing
(Section III), subjects occasionally volunteered the informa-
tion that they had been thinking about their forthcoming par-
ticipation in a remote-viewing experiment and had an image
come to them as to what the target location was to be. On
these occasions, the information was given only to the experi-
menter remaining at SRI with the subject and was unknown to
the outbound experimenter until completion of the experi-
ment. Two of these contributions were among the most
accurate descriptions turned in during those experiments.
Since the target location had not yet been selected when the
subject communicated his perceptions about the target, we
found the data difficult to contend with.
We offer these spontaneous occurrences not as proof of pre-
cognitive perception, but rather as the motivation that led us
to do further work in this field. On the basis of this firsthand
evidence, together with the copious literature describing years
of precognition experiments carried out in various other labo-
ratories, we decided to determine whether a subject could per-
form a perceptual task that required both spatial and temporal
remote viewing.
It is well known and recently has been widely discussed that
nothing in the fundamental laws of physics forbids the appar-
ent transmission of information from the future to the present
(discussed further in Section V). Furthermore, there is a gen-
eral dictum that "in physical law, everything that is not forbid-
den, is required" [61]. With this in mind, we set out to con-
duct very well-controlled experiments to determine whether
we could deliberately design and execute experiments for the
sole purpose of observing precognition under laboratory
conditions.
The experimental protocol was identical to that followed in
previous remote-viewing experiments with but one exception.
The exception was that the subject was required to describe
the remote location during a 15-min period beginning 20 min
before the target was selected and 35 min before the outbound
experimenter was to arrive at the target location.
In detail, as shown in Table IX, each day at ten o'clock one
of the experimenters would leave SRI with a stack of ten
sealed envelopes from a larger pool and randomized daily, con-
taining traveling instructions that had been prepared, but that
were unknown to the two experimenters remaining with the
subject. The subject for this experiment was Hella Hammid
(S4) who participated in the nine-experiment series replicating
the original Price work described earlier. The traveling experi-
menter was to drive continuously from 10:00 until 10:30 be-
fore selecting his destination with a random number generator.
(The motivation for continuous motion was our observation
that objects and persons in rapid motion are not generally seen
in the remote-viewing mode of perception, and we wished the
traveler to be a poor target until he reached his target site.) At
the end of 30 min of driving, the traveling experimenter gener-
TABLE IX
EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOL: PRECOGNITIVE REMOTE VIEWING
Time
Schedule
Experimenter/Subject Activity
10:00
Outbound experimenter leaves with 10 envelopes (containing
target locations) and random number generator;
begins half-hour drive
10:10
Experimenters remaining with subject in the laboratory
elicit from subject a description of where outbound
experimenter will be from 10:45-11:00
10:25
Subject response completed, at which time laboratory part
of experiment is over
10:30
Outbound experimenter obtains random number from a random
number generator, counts down to associated envelope, and
proceeds to target location indicated
10:45
Outbound experimenter remains at target location for
15 minutes (10:45-11:00)
Fig. 14. Subject Hammid (S4) described "some kind of congealing tar,
or maybe an area of condensed lava .. . that has oozed out to fill up
some kind of boundaries."
ated a random digit from 0 to 9 with a Texas Instruments
SR-51 random number generator; while still in motion, he
counted down that number of envelopes and proceeded di-
rectly to the target location so as to arrive there by 10:45. He
remained at the target site until 11:00, at which time he re-
turned to the laboratory, showed his chosen target name to a
security guard, and entered the experimental room.
During the same period, the protocol in the laboratory was
as follows. At 10:10, the subject was asked to begin a descrip-
tion of the place to which the experimenter would go 35 min
hence. The subject then generated a tape-recorded description
and associated drawings from 10:10 to 10:25, at which time
her part in the experiment was ended. Her description was
thus entirely concluded 5 min before the beginning of the tar-
get selection procedure.
Four such experiments were carried out. Each of them ap-
peared to be successful, an evaluation later verified in blind
judging without error by three judges. We will briefly sum-
marize the four experiments below.
The first target, the Palo Alto Yacht Harbor, consisted en-
tirely of mud flats because of an extremely low tide (see Fig.
14). Appropriately, the entire transcript of the subject per-
tained to "some kind of congealing tar, or maybe an area of
condensed lava. It looks like the whole area is covered with
some kind of wrinkled elephant skin that has oozed out to fill
up some kind of boundaries where (the outbound experi-
menter) is standing." Because of the lack of water, the dock
where the remote experimenter was standing was in fact rest-
ing directly on the mud.
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Fig. 15. Subject (S4) described a formal garden "very well manicured"
behind a double colonnade.
Note that the subject has learned not to rush into interpreta-
tion as to the nature or purpose of the place. This is a result
of our cautioning based on the observation that such efforts
tend to be purely analytical and in our experience are almost
invariably incorrect. If a subject can limit himself to what he
sees, he is often then able to describe a scene with sufficient
accuracy that an observer can perform the analysis for him and
identify the place.
The second target visited was the fountain at one end of a
large formal garden at Stanford University Hospital (Fig. 15).
The subject gave a lengthy description of a formal garden be-
hind a wall with a "double colonnade" and "very well mani-
cured." When we later took the subject to the location, she
was herself taken aback to find the double colonnaded wall
leading into the garden just as described.
The third target was a children's swing at a small park 4.6 km
from the laboratory (Fig. 16). The subject repeated again and
again that the main focus of attention at the site was a "black
iron triangle that the outbound experimenter had somehow
walked into or was standing on." The triangle was "bigger
than a man," and she heard a "squeak, squeak, about once a
second," which we observe is a match to the black metal swing
that did squeak.
Fig. 16. Subject (S4) saw a "black iron triangle that Hal had somehow
walked into" and heard a "squeak, squeak, about once a second."
Fig. 17. Subject (S4) described a very tall structure located among city
streets and covered with "Tiffany-like glass."
The final target was the Palo Alto City Hall (Fig. 17). The
subject described a very, very tall structure covered with
"Tiffany-like glass." She had it located among city streets and
with little cubes at the base. The building is glass-covered, and
the little cubes are a good match to the small elevator exit
buildings located in the plaza in front of the building.
To obtain a numerical evaluation of the accuracy of the pre-
cognitive viewing, the experimental results were subjected to
independent judging on a blind basis by three SRI scientists
who were not otherwise associated with the experiment. The
judges were asked to match the four locations, which they
visited, against the unedited typed manuscripts of the tape-
recorded narratives, along with the drawings generated by the
remote viewer. The transcripts were presented unlabeled and
in random order and were to be used without replacement. A
correct match required that the transcript of a given experi-
ment be matched with the target of that experiment. All three
judges independently matched the target data to the response
data without error. Under the null hypothesis (no information
channel and a random selection of descriptions without re-
placement), each judge independently obtained a result signifi-
cant at p = (4!)-1 = 0.042.
For reasons we do not as yet understand, the four transcripts
generated in the precognition experiment show exceptional co-
herence and accuracy as evidenced by the fact that all of the
judges were able to match successfully all of the transcripts to
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the corresponding target locations. A long-range experimental
program devoted to the clarification of these issues and involv-
ing a number of subjects is under way. The above four experi-
ments are the first four carried out under this program.
Currently, we have no precise model of this spatial and tem-
poral remote-viewing phenomenon. However, models of the
universe involving higher order synchronicity or correlation
have been proposed by the physicist Pauli and the psychologist
Carl Jung [62].
ACAUSALITY. If natural law5 were an absolute truth, then of
course there could not possibly be any processes that deviate
from it. But since causality5 is a statistical truth, it holds good
only on average and thus leaves room for exceptions which must
somehow be experienceable, that is to say, real. I try to regard
synchronistic events as acausal exceptions of this kind. They
prove to be relatively independent of space and time; they rela-
tivize space and time insofar as space presents in principle no ob-
stacle to their passage and the sequence of events in time is in-
verted so that it looks as if an event which has not yet occurred
were causing a perception in the present.
We shall see in the next section that such a description,
though poetic, has some basis in modern physical theory.
V. DISCUSSION
It is important to note at the outset that many contempo-
rary physicists are of the view that the phenomena that we
have been discussing are not at all inconsistent with the
framework of physics as currently understood. In this emerg-
ing view, the often-held belief that observations of this type
are incompatible with known laws in principle is erroneous,
such a concept being based on the naive realism prevalent
before the development of modern quantum theory and
information theory.
One hypothesis, put forward by I. M. Kogan of the USSR,
is that information transfer under conditions of sensory
shielding is mediated by extremely low-frequency (ELF)
electromagnetic waves in the 300-1000-km region [37]-
[40]. Experimental support for the hypothesis is claimed
on the basis of slower than inverse square attenuation, com-
patible with source-percipient distances lying in the induc-
tion field range as opposed to the radiation field range; ob-
served low bit rates (0.005-0.1 bit/s) compatible with the
information carrying capacity of ELF waves; apparent ineffec-
tiveness of ordinary electromagnetic shielding as an attenuator;
and standard antenna calculations entailing biologically gener-
ated currents yielding results compatible with observed signal-
to-noise ratios.
M. Persinger, Psychophysiology Laboratory, Laurentian Uni-
versity, Toronto, Canada, has narrowed the ELF hypothesis to
the suggestion that the 7.8-Hz "Shumann waves" and their
harmonics propagating along the earth-ionosphere waveguide
duct may be responsible. Such an hypothesis is compatible
with driving by brain-wave currents and leads to certain other
hypotheses such as asymmetry between east-west and west-
east propagation, preferred experimental times (midnight-4
A.M.), and expected negative correlation between success
and the U index (a measure of geomagnetic disturbance
throughout the world). Persinger claims initial support for
these factors on the basis of a literature search [63], [64].
On the negative side with regard to a straightforward ELF
interpretation as a blanket hypothesis are the following: a) ap-
parent real-time descriptions of remote activities in sufficient
detail to require a channel capacity in all probability greater
than that allowed by a conventional modulation of an ELF
signal; b) lack of a proposed mechanism for coding and decod-
ing the information onto the proposed ELF carrier; and c) ap-
parent precognition data. The hypothesis must nonetheless re-
main open at this stage of research, since it is conceivable that
counterindication a) may eventually be circumvented on the
basis that the apparent high bit rate results from a mixture of
low bit rate input and high bit rate "filling in the blanks" from
imagination; counterindication b) is common to a number of
normal perceptual tasks and may therefore simply reflect a
lack of sophistication on our part with regard to perceptual
functioning [65]; and counterindication c) may be accom-
modated by an ELF hypothesis if advanced waves as well as
retarded waves are admitted [66], [67]. Experimentation to
determine whether the ELF hypothesis is viable can be carried
out by the use of ELF sources as targets, by the study of para-
metric dependence on propagational directions and diurnal
timing, and by the exploration of interference effects caused
by creation of a high-intensity ELF environment during ex-
perimentation, all of which are under consideration in our lab-
oratory and elsewhere.
Some physicists believe that the reconciliation of observed
paranormal functioning with modern theory may take place at
a more fundamental level-namely, at the level of the founda-
tions of quantum theory. There is a continuing dialog, for
example, on the proper interpretation of the effect of an ob-
server (consciousness) on experimental measurement [68],
and there is considerable current interest in the implications
for our notions of ordering in time and space brought on by
the observation [69], [70] of nonlocal correlation or "quan-
tum interconnectedness" (to use Bohm's term [71]) of distant
parts of quantum systems of macroscopic dimensions. The
latter, Bell's theorem [72], emphasizes that "no theory of
reality compatible with quantum theory can require spatially
separated events to be independent" [73], but must permit
interconnectedness of distant events in a manner that is con-
trary to. ordinary experience [74]-[75]. This prediction has
been experimentally tested and confirmed in the recent
experiments of, for example, Freedman and Clauser [69],
[70].
E. H. Walker and O. Costa de Beauregard, independently
proposing theories of paranormal functioning based on quan-
tum concepts, argue that observer effects open the door to the
possibility of nontrivial coupling between consciousness and
the environment and that the nonlocality principle permits
such coupling to transcend spatial and temporal barriers [76],
[77].
Apparent "time reversibility"-that is, effects (e.g., observa-
tions) apparently preceding causes (e.g., events)-though con-
ceptually difficult at first glance, may be the easiest of appar-
ent paranormal phenomena to assimilate within the current
theoretical structure of our world view. In addition to the
familiar retarded potential solutions f(t - r/c), it is well known
that the equations of, for example, the electromagnetic field
admit of advanced potential solutions f(t + r/c)-solutions that
would appear to imply a reversal of cause and effect. Such
solutions are conventionally discarded as not corresponding to
any observable physical event. One is cautioned, however, by
statements such as that of Stratton in his basic text on electro-
magnetic theory [78].
$ As usually understood.
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The reader has doubtless noted that the choice of the function
f(t - r/c) is highly arbitrary, since the field equation admits also
a solution f(t +r/c). This function leads obviously to an advanced
time, implying that the field can be observed before it has been
generated by the source. The familiar chain of cause and effect
is thus reversed and this alternative solution might be discarded
as logically inconceivable. However, the application of "logical"
causality principles offers very insecure footing in matters such
as these and we shall do better to restrict the theory to retarded
action solely on the grounds that this solution alone conforms to
the present physical data.
Such caution is justified by the example in the early 1920's of
Dirac's development of the mathematical description of the
relativistic electron that also yielded a pair of solutions, one of
which was discarded as inapplicable until the discovery of the
positron in 1932.
In an analysis by O. Costa de Beauregard, an argument is put
forward that advanced potentials constitute a convergence
toward "finality" in a manner symmetrical to the divergence
of retarded potentials as a result of causality [77]. Such
phenomena are generally unobservable, however, on the gross
macroscopic scale for statistical reasons. This is codified in
the thermodynamic concept that for an isolated system entropy
(disorder) on the average increases. It is just this requirement
of isolation, however, that has been weakened by the observer
problem in quantum theory, and O. Costa de Beauregard argues
that the finality principle is maximally operative in just those
situations where the intrusion of consciousness as an ordering
phenomenon results in a significant local reversal of entropy
increase. At this point, further discussion of the subtleties of
such considerations, though apropos, would take us far afield,
so we simply note that such advanced waves, if detected, could
in certain cases constitute a carrier of information precognitive
to the event.
The above arguments are not intended to indicate that the
precise nature of the information channel coupling remote
events and human perception is understood. Rather, we in-
tend to show only that modern theory is not without resources
that can be brought to bear on the problems at hand, and we
expect that these problems will, with further work, continue
to yield to analysis and specification.
Furthermore, independent of the mechanisms that may be
involved in remote sensing, observation of the phenomenon
implies the existence of an information channel in the
information-theoretic sense. Since such channels are amenable
to analysis on the basis of communication theory techniques,
as indicated earlier, channel characteristics such as bit rate can
be determined independent of a well-defined physical channel
model in the sense that thermodynamic concepts can be ap-
plied to the analysis of systems independent of underlying
mechanisms. Furthermore, as we have seen from the work of
Ryzl discussed in Section II, it is possible to use such a channel
for error-free transmission of information if'redundancy coding
is used. (See also Appendix A.) Therefore, experimentation
involving the collection of data under specified conditions per-
mits headway to be made despite the formidable work that
needs to be done to clarify the underlying bases of the
phenomena.
VI. CONCLUSION
For the past three years we have had a program in the Elec-
tronics and Bioengineering Laboratory of SRI to investigate
those facets of human perception that appear to fall outside
bilities. The primary achievement of this program has been
the elicitation of high-quality "remote viewing"-the ability
of both experienced subjects and inexperienced volunteers
to view, by means of innate mental processes, remote geo-
graphical or technical targets such as roads, buildings, and
laboratory apparatus. Our accumulated data from over fifty
experiments with more than a half-dozen subjects indicate
the following. a) The phenomenon is not a sensitive function
of distance over a range of several kilometers. b) Faraday cage
shielding does not appear to degrade the quality or accuracy of
perception. c) Most of the correct information that subjects
relate is of a nonanalytic nature pertaining to shape, form,
color, and material rather than to function or name. (This
aspect suggests a hypothesis that information transmission
under conditions of sensory shielding may be mediated pri-
marily by the brain's right hemisphere.) d) The principal
difference between experienced subjects and inexperienced
volunteers is not that the latter never exhibit the faculty, but
rather that their results are simply less reliable. (This observa-
tion suggests the hypothesis that remote viewing may be a
latent and widely distributed, though repressed, perceptual
ability.)
Although the precise nature of the information channel cou-
pling remote events and human perception is not yet under-
stood, certain concepts in information theory, quantum
theory, and neurophysiological research appear to bear directly
on the issue. As a result, the working assumption among re-
searchers in the field is that the phenomenon of interest is
consistent with modern scientific thought, and can therefore
be expected to yield to the scientific method. Further, it is
recognized that communication theory provides powerful
techniques, such as the use of redundancy coding to improve
signal-to-noise ratio, which can be employed to pursue special-
purpose application of the remote-sensing channel independent
of an understanding of the underlying mechanisms. We there-
fore consider it important to continue data collection and to
encourage others to do likewise; investigations such as those
reported here need replication and extension under as wide a
variety of rigorously controlled conditions as possible.
APPENDIX A
SIGNAL ENHANCEMENT IN A PARANORMAL
COMMUNICATION CHANNEL BY APPLICATION
OF REDUNDANCY CODING
Independent of the mechanisms that may be involved in
remote sensing, observation of the phenomenon implies the
existence of an information channel in the information-
theoretic sense. As we have seen from the work of Ryzl dis-
cussed in Section II,6 it is even possible to use such a (noisy)
channel for error-free transmission of information if suf-
ficient redundancy coding is used [30], [31]. Following is a
general procedure that we have used successfully for signal
enhancement.
We shall assume that the "message" consists of a stream of
binary digits (0,1) of equal probability (e.g., binary sort of
green/white cards as in Ryzl's case, English text encoded as in
Table X and sent long distance by strobe light on/off, and so
on). To combat channel noise, each binary digit to be sent
through the channel requires the addition of redundancy bits
(coding). Efficient coding requires a compromise between the
desire to maximize reliability and the desire to minimize re-
6 See also the note added in proof on the successful work done by
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TABLE X
5-BIT CODE FOR ALPHANUMERIC
CHARACTERS
E
00000
Y
01000
T
11111
G, J
10111
N
00001
W
01001
R
11110
V
10110
I
00010
B
01010
0
11101
Ø
10101
A
00011
1
01011
S, X, Z
11100
2
10100
D
00100
3
01100
H
11011
4
10011
L
00101
5
01101
C, K, Q
11010
6
10010
F
00110
7
01110
P
11001
8
10001
U
00111
9
01111
M
11000
.
10000
Note: Alphabet characters listed
in order of decreasing frequency
in English text. See, for example,
A. Sinkov [79]. (The low-fre-
quency letters, X, Z, K, Q, and J,
have been grouped with similar
characters to provide space for
numerics in a 5-bit code.) In
consideration of the uneven dis-
tribution of letter frequencies in
English text, this code is chosen
such that 0 and 1 have equal
probability.
dundancy. One efficient coding scheme for such a channel is
obtained by application of a sequential sampling procedure of
the type used in production-line quality control [80]. The
adaptation of such a procedure to paranormal communication
channels, which we now discuss, was considered first by
Taetzsch [81]. The sequential method gives a rule of proce-
dure for making one of three possible decisions following the
receipt of each bit: accept 1 as the bit being transmitted; reject
1 as the bit being transmitted (i.e., accept 0); or continue
transmission of the bit under consideration. The sequential
sampling procedure differs from fixed-length coding in that
the number of bits required to reach a final decision on a
message bit is not fixed before transmission, but depends on
the results accumulated with each transmission. The principal
advantage of the sequential sampling procedure as compared
with the other methods is that, on the average, fewer bits per
final decision are required for an equivalent degree of
reliability.
Use of the sequential sampling procedure requires the speci-
fication of parameters that are determined on the basis of the
following considerations. Assume that a message bit (0 or 1)
is being transmitted. In the absence of a priori knowledge, we
may assume equal probability (p = 0.5) for the two possibili-
ties (0,1). Therefore, from the standpoint of the receiver, the
probability of correctly identifying the bit being transmitted is
p = 0.5 because of chance alone. An operative remote-sensing
channel could then be expected to alter the probability of
correct identification to a value p = 0.5 + v, where the param-
eter y satisfies 0<|v|<0.5. (The quantity may be positive
or negative depending on whether the paranormal channel
results in so-called psi-hitting or psi-missing.) Good psi func-
tioning on a repetitive task has been observed to result in ( =
0.12, as reported by Ryzl [31]. Therefore, to indicate the
design procedure, let us assume a baseline psi parameter
Vp = 0.1 and design a communication system on this basis.
CUMULATIVE NUMBER OF MATCHES AGAINST
50
"1" TARGET MESSAGE SEQUENCE
40
DECISION 1
Accept "1" as
30
the Bit Being
DECISION 3
Transmitted
Continue
20
Transmission
DECISION 2
Accept "O" as
10
the Bit Being
Transmitted
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
NUMBER OF TRIALS
Fig. 18. Enhancement of signal-to-noise ratio by sequential sampling
procedure (Po = 0.4, p] = 0.6, x = 0.01, 8 = 0.01).
The question to be addressed is whether, after repeated
transmission, a given message bit is labeled a "1" at a low rate
Po commensurate with the hypothesis Ho that the bit in ques-
tion is a "0," or at a higher rate p1 commensurate with the
hypothesis H1 that the bit in question is indeed a "1." The
decision-making process requires the specification of four
parameters.
Po The probability of labeling incorrectly a "O" message bit
as a "1." The probability of labeling correctly a "O" as
a "0" is p= 0.5 + Vb = 0.6. Therefore, the probability
of labeling incorrectly a "0" as a "1" is 1 - p = 0.4 = po.
P1
The probability of labeling correctly a "1" message bit
as a "1," is given by p1 = 0.5 + Vb = 0.6.
&
The probability of rejecting a correct identification for
a "0" (Type I error). We shall take & = 0.01.
The probability of accepting an incorrect identification
for a "1" (Type II error). We shall take $ = 0.01.
With the parameters thus specified, the sequential sampling
procedure provides for construction of a decision graph as
shown in Fig. 18. The equations for the upper and lower limit
lines are
Σ, =d1 + SN
E = - do + SN
where
log 1-B
d1 =-
do =
P1 1 - Po
log P1 1 - Po
Po 1 - P1
log
log
Po 1 - P1
1 - @
B
log
1 - Po
1- P1
S =
P1 1 - Po
log
Po 1 - P1
in which S is the slope, N is the number of trials, and d1 and
do are the y-axis intercepts. A cumulative record of receiver-
generated responses to the target bit is compiled until either
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1.0
RELIABILITY (probability of correctly
determining message being transmitted)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
+0.4 +0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4
¿ (psi parameter)
Fig. 19. Reliability| curve for sequential sampling procedure (Po = 0.4,
PI = 0.6, Q = 0.01, 8 = 0.01).
the upper or the lower limit line is reached, at which point a
decision is made to accept 0 or 1 as the bit being transmitted.
Channel reliability (probability of correctly determining
message being transmitted) as a function of operative psi
parameter v is plotted in Fig. 19. As observed, the sequential
sampling procedure can result in 90 percent or greater reliability
with psi parameters on the order of a few percent.
Implementation of the sequential sampling procedure re-
quires the transmission of a message coded in binary digits.
Therefore, the target space must consist of dichotomous ele-
ments such as the white and green cards used in the experi-
ments by Ryzl.
In operation, a sequence corresponding to the target bit (0
or 1) is sent and the cumulative entries are made (Fig. 18) until
a decision is reached to accept either a 1 or a 0 as the bit being
transmitted. At a prearranged time, the next sequence is
begun and continues as above until the entire message has been
received. A useful alternative, which relieves the percipient of
the burden of being aware of his self-contradiction from trial
to trial, consists of cycling through the entire message repeti-
tively and entering each response on its associated graph until
a decision has been reached on all message bits. The authors
have used this technique successfully in a pilot study, but a
discussion of this would take us beyond the intended scope of
this paper.
From the results obtained in such experiments, the channel
bit rate can be ascertained for the system configuration under
consideration. Furthermore, bit rates for other degrees of
reliability (i.e., for other po, P1, @, and ß) can be estimated by
construction of other decision curves over the same data base
and thus provide a measure of the bit rate per degree of
reliability.
In summary, the procedures described here can provide for a
specification of the characteristics of a remote-sensing channel
under well-defined conditions. These procedures also provide
for a determination of the feasibility of such a channel for
particular applications.
APPENDIX B
REMOTE-VIEWING TRANSCRIPT
Following is the unedited transcript of the first experiment
with an SRI volunteer (S6), a mathematician in the computer
science laboratory, with_no previous experience
viewing. The target, determined by random procedure, was
White's Plaza, a plaza with fountain at Stanford University
(shown in Fig. 8). As is our standard protocol, the experi-
menter with the subject is kept ignorant of the specific target
visited as well as the contents of the target pool. The experi-
menter's statements and questions are italics.
Today is Monday, October 7th. It is 11:00 and this is a re-
mote viewing experiment with Russ Targ, Phyllis Cole, and Hal
Puthoff. In this experiment Hal will drive to a remote site
chosen by a random process. Phyllis Cole will be the remote
viewer, and Russ Targ is the monitor. We expect this experi-
ment to start at twenty minutes after eleven and run for fif-
teen minutes
It is just about twenty minutes after eleven and Hal should
be at his target location by now.
Why don't you tell me what kind of pictures you see and
what you think he might be doing or experiencing.
The first thing that came to mind was some sort of a large,
square kind of a shape. Like Hal was in front of it. It was a
... not a building or something, it was a square. I don't know
if it was a window, but something like that so that the bottom
line of it was not at the ground. About where his waist was, at
least. That's what it seemed to me. It seems outdoors some-
how. Tree.
Does Hal seem to be looking at that square?
I don't know. The first impression was that he wasn't, but I
have a sense that whatever it was was something one might
look at. I don't know if it would be a sign, but something that
one might look at.
Can you tell if it is on the ground or vertical?
It seemed vertical.
I don't have a sense that it was part of anything particular.
It might be on a building or part of a building, but I don't
know. There was a tree outside, but I also got the impression
of cement. I don't have the impression of very many people
or traffic either. I have the sense that he is sort of walking
back and forth. I don't have any more explicit picture than
that.
Can you move into where he is standing and try to see what
he is looking at?
I picked up he was touching something-something rough.
Maybe warm and rough. Something possibly like cement.
It is twenty-four minutes after eleven.
Can you change your point of view and move above the
scene so you can get a bigger picture of what's there?
I still see some trees and some sort of pavement or some-
thing like that. Might be a courtyard. The thing that came to
mind was it might be one of the plazas at Stanford campus or
something like that, cement.
Some kinds of landscaping.
I said Stanford campus when I started to see some things in
White Plaza, but I think that is misleading.
I have the sense that he's not moving around too much.
That it's in a small area.
I guess I'll go ahead and say it, but I'm afraid I'm just putting
on my impressions from Stanford campus. I had the impres-
. sion of a fountain. There are two in the plaza, and it seemed
that Hal was possibly near the, what they call Mem Claw.
What is that?
It's a fountain that looks rather like a claw. It's a black
sculpture. And it has benches around it made of cement.
Are there any buildings at the place you are looking at? Are
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Usually at some places there should be a building, large or
small that the courtyard is about. Look at the end or the sides
of the courtyard. Is there anything to be seen?
I have a sense that there are buildings. It's not solid build-
ings. I mean there are some around the periphery and I have a
sense that none of them are very tall. Maybe mostly one story,
maybe an occasional two story one.
Do you have any better idea of what your square was that
you saw at the outset?
No. I could hazard different kinds of guesses.
Does it seem part of this scene?
It . . . I think it could be. It could almost be a bulletin board
or something with notices on it maybe.
Or something that people are expected to look at. Maybe a
window with things in it that people were expected to look at.
What kind of trees do you see in this place?
I don't know what kind they are. The impression was that
they were shade trees and not terribly big. Maybe 12 feet of
trunk and then a certain amount of branches above that. So
that the branches have maybe a 12 foot diameter, or some-
thing. Not real big trees.
New trees rather than old trees?
Yeah, maybe 5 or 10 years old, but not real old ones.
Is there anything interesting about the pavement?
No. It seems to be not terribly new or terribly old. Not
very interesting. There seems to be some bits of landscaping
around. Little patches of grass around the edges and periph-
eries. Maybe some flowers. But, not lush.
You saw some benches. Do you want to tell me about them?
Well, that's my unsure feeling about this fountain. There
was some kind of benches of cement. Curved benches, it felt
like.
They were of rough cement.
What do you think Hal is doing while he is there?
I have a sense that he is looking at things trying to project
them. Looking at different things and sort of walking back
and forth not covering a whole lot of territory.
Sometimes standing still while he looks around.
I just had the impression of him talking, and I almost sense
that it was being recorded or something. I don't know if he
has a tape recorder, but if it's not that, then he is saying some-
thing because it needed to be remembered, It's 11:33. He's
just probably getting ready to come back.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank the principal subjects, Mrs. Hella
Hammid, Pat Price, and Ingo Swann, who showed patience and
forbearance in addition to their enthusiasm and outstanding
perceptual abilities. We note with sadness the death of one of
our subjects, Mr. Price. We express our sincere thanks also to
Earle Jones, Bonnar Cox, and Dr. Arthur Hastings, of SRI, and
Mrs. Judith Skutch and Richard Bach, without whose en-
couragement and support this work could not have taken
place.
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, MARCH 1976
"Parapsychology: Fiction or reality?" Questions of Philosophy,
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variable
Vi-L freq.
output
kinetico - alt'r.
VDC
30 rectifier
I valve linv'r
VDC
Vi
baca Ycb
3Ø inverter
VN-L
60 HZ. utility bus
į
15,6 fund;l
la = 11,2,1,2 ... ]
Ib =1 3,4,3,4 ...
Ic = 15,6,5,6 ..
L
Fig. 2. Waveforms of voltages and currents along the asynchronous
link. Case I: Kinetico-alternator speed ~ 1.0 pu. V, I, P, ~ 1.0 pu.
variable
VI-L
freq.
output
Mr
kinetico- alt'r.
Voc
30 rectifier
V
I valve linvt
VDc
30 inverter
VN-L
60 HZ. utility bus
la = 1,2,1,2 ... ]
Ib= 3,4,3,4, ...
1
Ic=15,6,5,6, ...
Fig. 4. Waveforms of voltages and currents along the asynchronous
link. Case III: Kinetico-alternator speed = 0.28 pu. V, I, P, ~ 1.0 pu.
and has related application in areas such as wind-energy conversion sys-
tems, dynamic stabilization of system power-transients, recovery
of slip-frequency power from the rotor of induction machines operating
sub- or suprasynchronously, and others.
REFERENCES
[1] R. T. Dann, "The revolution in flywheels," Machine Design, pp.
130-135, May 1973.
[2] R. F. Post and S. F. Post, "Flywheels," Sc. Amer., vol. 229, no. 6,
pp. 17-23, Dec. 1973.
[3] D. W. Rabenhorst, "Primary energy storage and the superfly-
wheel," Applied Physics Laboratory, The Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, MD, Tech. Memo. TG 1081 (Revised),
Oct. 1970.
[4] D. W. Rabenhorst, "Potential applications for the superflywheel,"
in Proc. Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., Soc.
Auto. Eng. Inc., pp. 1118-1125, 1971.
[5] E. J. Brunelle, "The superflywheel: A second look," J. Eng. Mate-
rials and Tech., Trans. ASME, pp. 63-65, Jan. 1973.
[6] L. J. Lawson, "New uninterruptible power system alternatives us-
ing high capacity kinetic energy wheels," in Conf. Record IEEE,
IAS, Eighth Annual Meeting, Milwaukee, WI, pp. 151-156, Oct.
1973.
[7] A. Seireg and K. S. Surana, "Optimum design of rotating disks,"
J. Eng. for Industry, Trans. ASME, pp. 1-10, Feb. 1970.
[8] E. Blauenstein, "The first gearless drive for a tube mill," Brown
Boveri Review, vol. 57, pp. 96-105, Mar. 1970.
A Confirmatory Remote Viewing Experiment in a
Group Setting
ARTHUR C. HASTINGS AND DAVID B. HURT
Abstract-A remote viewing experiment was conducted with a group
of 36 persons who successfully identified, without apparent sensory
communication, a target location chosen randomly and visited by two
observers (p = 6 x 10-7). Success is partly attributed to procedures
designed to facilitate remote viewing abilities: asking participants to
give themselves permission to have the ability, forming the group into
two-person teams of viewer and coach, discussing resistances, and giving
instructions on generating mental imagery and impressions.
In response to the call for studies relating to the paper by Puthoff and
Targ1 on information transfer via "remote viewing" and other modes,
we wish to report an experiment with a large number of participants in
a group setting.
Manuscript received May 6, 1976.
The authors are with the Parapsychology Research Group, Inc.,
Stanford, CA 94305.
1 H. E. Puthoff and R. Targ, "A perceptual channel for information
transfer over kilometer distances: Historical perspective and recent re-
search," Proc. IEEE, vol. 64, pp. 329-354, Mar. 1974.
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0 === =
0
ti
tl
1
1
-
i
1
1
2
6
Mr
Voc
30 rectifier
I valve linvt
inv'r = Ing
VDc
30 inverter
VN-L
60 HZ. utility bus
A
-
¢
la = 1,2,1,2 ... ]
Ib = 13,4,3,4, ...
Ic = 15,6,5,6, ..
Fig. 3. Waveforms of voltages and currents along the asynchronous
link. Case II: Kinetic-alternator speed ~ 0.44 pu. V, I, P, ~ 1.0 pu.
rated charge-the frequency converter thereby supplying losses.) b) At
full charge and superwheel rated speed, CB3 can be closed, with CB1
and CB2 open. At this point the controlled firing-angle $ (with
constant-extinction-angle, CEA, override) of the inverter valves is auto-
matically adjusted to "float" the rectifier-inverter combination by
equating the average de output Vy of the rectifier with the average
counter dc, Vi of the inverter. This free-wheeling is maintained until
power is desired from the superwheel, whereupon $ is increased lower-
ing Vi < V, to yield the desired P30 into the utility as depicted on Figs.
2, 3, and 4. After drawdown the charge-up sequence is repeated during
an off-peak time period.
Thus this ac/dc/ac transmission link obviates the "usual" frequency
droop and provides smooth energy flow from the kinetic storage to the
fixed-frequency utility grid with little limitation on the variable-speed
drive.1 As such this link can be considered one general approach to
many problems of variable-speed input to some form of fixed output
' Extensive grateful credit must be given to Doctoral Candidate
Bernard T. Merritt for his irreplaceable aid in setting up the equipment
and instrumentation of this project.
VI-L
variable
freq.
output
kinetico-alt'r.
a = 0
Mr
. 11 inv'r = Ina
11 inv'r = Ing
LOE .- C>OL+OL
+LOE -- >OL+OL
=
r
1
d.
11

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PROCEEDIN
The authors followed the protocol, with some modifications, estab-
lished by Puthoff and Targ in their SRI remote viewing experiments.
Prior to the meeting of the group, and unknown to them, we selected
six target sites, wrote their names on cards, and sealed them in en-
velopes. These were randomly numbered, so no one, including us,
knew the number of any target location.
The group consisted of 36 people, men and women, mostly pro-
fessional, who met with the understanding that an experiment in ESP
would be conducted. At the time of the experiment (8:30 PM, March
16), and in the presence of the group, one envelope was randomly
selected by throwing a die. D. H. and a companion who was selected
from the group then left with the scaled envelope. They opened the
envelope in D. H.'s car and drove to the target site, timing their travel
to arrive exactly ten minutes after their departure. At the site they ob-
served and interacted with the location for ten minutes, then returned
to the group meeting place.
During the time the remote team was at the target, the members of
the group attempted to generate information about the target site,
making notes and or drawings of their impressions. At the end of this
ten minute period, but before the return of the remote team and still
ignorant of the target location, the participants were allowed to com-
plete their notes. Then A. H., who had directed the group procedure,
named the six locations in the target pool and described them briefly.
(A. H. knew the target sites in the pool, but not which one was ran-
domly chosen.) The participants were asked to infer what the target
was, based on the information they had generated during the target
period.
Of the 36 participants, 20 "voted" for one site, a playground area
with a log structure in a nearby park. The remote team returned a short
while after the vote was taken, handed over their envelope, and reported
that the playground area was indeed the target location.
Statistically, chance expectation (a null distribution) would allot six
votes out of 36 to each of the six locations in the target pool. A t-test
(one tailed) for the 20 votes actually given to the correct target gives a
Z score of 5.22, with a probability of less than 6 X 10-7.
We do not wish to be blasé; frankly, we were astonished by the high
level of success of the participants.
The target was a circular play area, filled with sand, and containing a
log structure with chains hanging from it and a slide on one side. The
remote team climbed up the structure, stood on the platform, slid
down, and took off their shoes in the sand. There were swings next to
the play arca, and a jungle gym alongside the sidewalk.
Perceptions of the participants in the group included mental pictures
of swings, trees, park lights, sand, and the log structure (seen as logs,
vertical columns, a balcony, etc.). Two participants reported images of
the remote team taking off their shoes. One participant drew a circle
and wrote "playground" in it; D. H.'s companion reported that at the
location she had drawn a circle in the sand and had written "play-
ground" in it. One participant reported the correct name of the park.
Other descriptions included items outside the immediate area but which
the travelers had observed: the jungle gym, swings, lighted windows of
houses surrounding the park, a soft drink can on the ground.
The other five target locations were a children's play tunnel into
which the remote team was to crawl, an orchard of flowering trees, a
busy bar and restaurant, an ice cream parlor, and a post office building.
In studying the SRI remote viewing results we concluded that the target
locations should vary widely along certain dimensions, particularly
indoor/outdoor locations and dominant mood, and the sites in the pool
were chosen to be three indoor and three outdoor locations, with each
location distinct in mood from the others.
We think that the effectiveness of the experiment was partly due to
the way we conducted it. We began by commenting that success in re-
mote viewing seems to be helped by three conditions: 1) Accepting that
remote viewing is possible and agreeing that you can do it; 2) Turning
your attention away from external perceptions and to inner pictures,
experiences, and thoughts; and 3) Receiving feedback as soon as possible.
Regarding the first condition, we stated that remote viewing appeared
to be a latent ability that could be developed, and that everyone who
agreed to do remote viewing under the SRI conditions had succeeded.
We asked everyone in the group to give themselves permission to have
"ESP" or remote viewing ability. We then held a brief group discussion
on reluctance and resistance to this ability, hoping in this way to relieve
emotional blocks or intellectual rejection. For those who had hesita-
tions, we suggested that they give themselves permission for the limited
time and place of this experiment.
Regarding the allocation of attention, we used quiet periods in which
the participants sat with their eyes closed in silence, and became aware
of inner images and thoughts. We had a practice period of one-two
minutes before the experiment to facilitate this mode of attention.
To generate information about the remote target, we advised the
participants to clear their minds and "request" information about the
location, then to observe what information came. We commented that
they might expect it to be in the form of pictures, images, moods, and
other perceptions. They were instructed not to be judgmental, i.e., not
to edit, reject, or ignore impressions, but to remember and report as
much as they could, even if fragmentary or apparently nonsensical.
They were not to interpret what they perceived. We hoped these in-
structions would facilitate an openness to internal impressions that
would enable the remote viewing information to emerge above the
noise level of the usual thinking, judging, and interpreting.
For the actual remote viewing procedure we asked participants to
form into pairs, with one person acting as percipient (viewer) and the
other acting as a coach. During the first five minutes of the target
period both remained silent, eyes closed. Then the percipient, still
with eyes closed, reported his or her information to the coach, who
wrote down all the description. Near the end of the ten minute target
period the coach could ask general questions, such as, "Is the location
indoors or outdoors? Are there other people present?"
Coaches were primarily intended to support and assist the viewer, but
they could also try remote description themselves if they wished. Our
earlier statistics were based on total votes for target sites, combining
viewers and coaches. We did not record the two groups separately,
though apparently most coaches' votes agreed with their partner. If we
assumed that only viewers voted, and cast 10 out of 18 votes for the
correct target, the Z score would be reduced to 4.43, giving a probability
score of 6 × 10-5.
With the large number of persons, it was necessary to go through the
schedule as a group, rather than having individuals set their own pace. It
was important to have one person to conduct the experiment, announce
quiet periods, times of viewing, and keep the proceedings relaxed
within the protocol.
Feedback was provided on the return of the remote team, who de-
scribed where they were, details of the location, and their activities.
The group asked them questions to check their remote viewing descrip-
tions, and many participants later went to the target site to view it
directly. The remote team made written notes and drawings of what
they did, and in the future we would suggest tape recording and .
Polaroid photographs to add to the immediate feedback given to the
viewers.
We would also note some improvements that could be made in our
procedure. In the results we relied on the viewer's own judgment to
identify the correct target; it would be better to have the remote view-
ing descriptions also judged by outside referees. The target pool should
be made up by someone not at the experiment. And we would want to
clarify whether the coaches should vote on the basis of their viewer's
information or with consideration for information they themselves
have generated.
In conclusion the results of this test indicate that remote viewing did
occur under controlled conditions in a group setting. We believe this
justifies further exploration of this mode of information transfer.
Comments on "A Perceptual Channel for Information Transfer
over Kilometer Distances: Historical Perspective and Recent
Research"
Comments1 by R. A. McConnell2
.
The contribution of Puthoff and Targ in their paper3 seems to me
to be two-fold.
For a long time the enigma of extrasensory perception has been
needing the pressure of fresh minds with broad backgrounds. In bring-
ing to bear the viewpoint of engineering science, these authors have em-
phasized informational, quantum mechanical, and thermodynamic
aspects of the research that have been largely ignored by most of those
who call themselves parapsychologists.
1 Manuscript received May 6, 1976.
2 R. A. McConnell is with the Life Sciences Department, University
of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260.
3 H. E. Puthoff and R. Targ, Proc. IEEE, vol. 64, pp. 329-354, Mar.
1976.
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Secondly, they have developed a new and promising procedure
called "remote viewing," which may bring us closer to the ideal of an
experiment "repeatable by prescription."
In a paper reporting a particular set of experiments the authors
could not hope to convey the full scope of the existing literature. Their
references, although well chosen for their purpose, do not provide a
busy, sceptical engineer with many toeholds into the critical literature.
Some of their experimental references are primarily of historical inter-
est because there is no satisfying way to assess credibility from a dis-
tance in time. They cite several modern papers of good quality, but
the reader has no way of spotting these from among others that are
important for conceptual exposition but fail to meet the highest stan-
dards of evidentiality.
In connection with a course that I teach to natural science univer-
sity students, I have prepared an annotated "evidential bibliography of
parapsychology" and a companion "sociological bibliography" (dealing
with the taboo against parapsychology). I shall be glad to send a copy4
of each to any reader who wonders how best to try to resolve feelings
of uncertainty engendered by the findings of the Puthoff and Targ
paper.
Comments5 by William A. Harris6
You have opened Pandora's box by publishing the paper by Put-
hoff and Targ,1 and I assume you will have to publish a considerable
number of discussions as a consequence. I personally would like to
comment on two examples used in the above paper.
1) Subject Hella Hammid (S4) had initially demonstrated apparent
noncognitive communication (pp. 334 and 336). A possible scenario:
S4 unconsiously identifies one of the envelopes at approximately 10:00
and causes the target experimenter to override the TI-55 and select the
chosen card. No misdirection is implied. S4 directs the future instead
of predicting it.
2) S4 described a part of a drill press not visible to the experi-
menter (p. 346) lending credence to the possibility that she could have
"seen" the contents of a sealed envelope. Invocation of "advanced
potentials" as an explanation is subject to the criticism of too-close
identification of a model with reality (see Slepian's paper "On Band-
width," in the same issue).
Comments7 by C. A. Musès8
In connection with the article on parapsychology by Puthoff and
Targ,1 there is a historical anecdote, furnishing some relevant lessons on
electronics vis-à-vis the mooted subject of "psi."
When Puthoff visited my math lab and stayed overnight at my home
some four years ago, I pointed out to him among other things that
while retarded electromagnetic field potentials furnished the Lorentz
transformations, the mathematically equally admissible advanced po-
tentials were being neglected, and I gave him the Julius Stratton refer-
ence which he cited in your issue mentioned above.
However, Puthoff rushed into print too soon, forgetting that I had
also told him that whatever use they were, advanced potentials could
have no bearing whatsoever on precognition. Yet that they do was the
main and really only electronic point of his and Targ's article (pp. 349-
350).
The reason they do not is very simple. If one studies Maxwellian
potential theory one soon learns that the time-advance in the case of
advanced potentials amounts to r/c, where r is the distance between
event and observer. The maximum distance between any two points
on earth is one circumference of the planet or about 25 000 miles.
Even with this distance the time advance of any "precognition" on this
basis could be at best less than 0.0001 second!
Since any precognition worthy of the name must antedate the event
precognized by at least 15 minutes, it is clear that advanced potential
theory's ability to explain precognition fails by a factor of about a
million.
We can only conclude that either Puthoff and Targ have not read
their Maxwell lately, or else that they had so much desire to explain
precognition in print that they sort of forgot their physics in their
enthusiasm.
4 His offer may be accepted by a postcard to him at the above
address.
3 Manuscript received March 25, 1976.
6 W. A. Harris is a retired engineer formerly with the RCA Corpor-
ation.
7 Manuscript received April 6, 1976.
8C. A. Muses is with the Research Centre for Mathematics and Mor-
phology, Santa Barbara, CA 93108.
As to the telepathy (remote viewing) experiments, similar proce-
dures, with even better results in graphic form, were performed and
published by the French engineer Rene Warcollier in the 1920's and
1930's. Warcollier, who anticipated the Puthoff-Targ findings by
decades, is unfortunately omitted by them from their long list of
"references."
On all counts, then, this letter of rectification is due your readers,
with a kudo to that one engineer of yours who cannily distrusted that
particular piece.
Comments9 by Sid Deutsch10
Publication of the paper on extrasensory perception by Puthoff and
Targ1 shows that, in addition to a shortage of electrical power, we are
now suffering from a shortage of editorial restraint (scanning the issue,
p. 291). This diversion into parapsychology was tolerable in a day
when energy and paper were plentiful, but today man lives more and
more by bread alone. It is immoral to devote 24 percent of the techni-
cal content of the March 1976 PROCEEDINGS to the dignification of
ESP when, ironically, the March 1976 Spectrum11 bemoans the shaky
financial state of the IEEE and is softening us up for an increase in
dues.
Martin Gardner recently exposed the weaknesses in the Puthoff-
Targ ESP research.12 He showed that the small amount of statistical
"evidence" for ESP can be accounted for by bias on the part of the
human experimenters. When one substitutes computer score-keeping
for the human brain, the statistical evidence vanishes. But one cannot
disprove the existence of ESP, and most people (including engineers
and scientists) have an emotional need for this sort of thing. We can
confidently expect, therefore, that ESP research will be one of our
permanent acquisitions.
One can understand how the NASA personnel could approve
$80 000 of public funds for an ESP project.12 At the very least it paid
for some equipment that Stanford Research Institute could eventually
employ in the public interest. One can only regret that the creativity
of some obviously intelligent and skilled engineers and scientists was
not directed into more socially useful channels.
There are several scientific arguments against ESP. First, with our
present-day sophisticated equipment, we cannot detect any forces
beyond the four fundamental forces of physics-gravitational, electro-
magnetic, the "weak" force, and the "strong" force. Second, we under-
stand quite well the gross operation of an individual neuron, and no one
seriously proposes that there is anything here but electrochemical phe-
nomena. Briefly and approximately, a neuron fires, or generates a
narrow 100-mV pulse, when the algebraic summation of incoming
stimuli or their equivalents exceeds 20 mV. The firing rate generally
has a strong noise-like component, but this can be traced to thermal
noise (around 60 uV for a myelinated fiber), to the fact that there are
many inputs (sometimes as many as 100 000), and not to extrasensory
ectoplasm.
The human brain contains some 100-billion neurons. With 100-
billion neurons one can do research in ESP, and even write irate letters
to the Editor. But the logical conclusion is that the future state of the
human brain (and of everything else, for that matter) is predetermined
by the present state of the universe. The behavior of the brain is stereo-
typed in the sense that two or more identical brains, given identical
initial conditions, would yield identical outputs at t = 0+. In other
word, "free will" is an illusion.
From another viewpoint, the computer of today was encoded in the
genetic potential of the DNA molecule of its designers 40 years ago.
The DNA molecule is synthesized out of only four nucleotide bases
(abbreviated A, C, G, and T) each of which is a relatively simple as-
semblage of atoms. Except for identical twins, each of us is the devel-
opmental result of a chemically unique DNA molecule. The informa-
tion content of the DNA molecule-10-million bits based on subsequent
protein structures13 -must be equal to or greater than that needed to
"construct" the newborn infant. At what point, as the child develops,
9 Manuscript received May 4, 1976.
1º S. Deutsch is with the Rutgers Medical School and Rutgers Uni-
versity, Piscataway, NJ 08854.
11'E. Rubinstein, "IEEE: another AMA?" IEEE Spectrum, vol. 13,
pp. 64-69, Mar. 1976. Also, same issue, E. Rubinstein, "Pres. Dillard
on the budget," pp. 70-73.
12 M. Gardner, "Mathematical games," Scientific American, vol.
233, pp. 114-118, Oct 1975. Also, "Letters," Scientific American, vol.
234, pp. 6-8, Jan. 1976.
13 S. Deutsch, Models of the Nervous System. New York: Wiley,
1967, p. 57.
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do "free will" and ESP enter the picture? And why, if all men are
created approximately equal, are some of them blessed with ESP while
others are doomed to a more mundane existence?
It is difficult to contemplate a beautiful mathematical result, or
the intricacies of a computer, and believe that it is all the predeter-
mined outcome of ensembles of 100-billion neurons that are interacting
with each other and with the environment. As a consequence, the
IEEE has more than its share of egocentrics. To most of us the world is
still flat, we reside at the center of an admiring universe, and the brain
is greater than the sum of its 100-billion parts. The great Laplace, on
the other hand, more humble than most of us, preached determinism.
Today, when we know so much more, quantum mechanics and the
uncertainty principle are routinely invoked to prove that free will docs,
indeed, exist. The latter assertion is based on a distortion of the uncer-
tainty principle. The principle does not state that the small-scale move-
' ments of an individual electron do not obey, say, F= ma; it only
implies that the human experimenter, regardless of how sophisticated
his measurements and apparatus become, cannot determine precisely
the state of the electron. In any event, quantum mechanics is of negli-
gible significance at the millivolt levels at which a neuron operates.
The writing of this letter, and the decision as to whether or not it
will be published, are all predetermined. If it is published, it will be
fascinating to read the predetermined comments of readers who are
convinced, without the slightest uncertainty, that they are writing let-
ters out of their own free will. My point is that whatever they write,
once it is published, had to be published that way.
Comments14 by James L. Calkins15
Puthoff and Targ have undertaken a series of potentially significant
studies1 utilizing what appears to be appropriate techniques taken from
the scientist's arsenal of objective methodologies, many of which the
authors have previously distinguished themselves using in research in
the natural sciences. It is certainly an understatement to say that such
a controversial topic as ESP requires extraordinarily precise and careful
methods, especially well suited to exclude the basis for all those nagging
criticisms often irreverently hurled at the parapsychologist-fraud, in-
adaquate controls, imprecise and imcomplete reporting of essentials and
details in their studies, improper statistics, and, especially, the presence
of numerous confounding variables. Indeed, the authors themselves
apparently set out to achieve this goal, what they refer to as their
"principle responsibility-to resolve under unambiguous conditions the
basic issue of whether or not this class of paranormal perception phe-
nomenon exists" (pp. 334-335). Unfortunately, the model for their
study follows the traditional stratagems of the parapsychologists in the
United States and Europe, rather than the method they no doubt other-
wise use in their non-behavioral research (and I might add that is largely
followed in experimental psychology). As we shall indicate, the conse-
quence of this is that they must necessarily fall far short in fulfilling
their stated "principle responsibility."
It is the essence of the experimental method-in contrast to natural-
istic observation, the survey technique, correlational procedures, field
studies, and so on, to in fact create the conditions necessary for "unam-
biguous" resolution of fundamental questions since only this method
permits manipulation and control of potentially confounding variables
by the eminently sensible method of varying the critical factors under
study, and systematically observing their effects upon other selected
and measurable variables while holding potentially confounding vari-
ables under tight control via such techniques as randomization, con-
stancy, counterbalancing, matching, etc. The manipulated variables are
called independent variables (IV's), and the variables sensitive to the
effects of the IV are called dependent variables (DV's). This has been
expressed quite eloquently by Ebbinghaus16 in his incorporation of
this experimental method into his researches into human memory, a
successful effort which went far in illustrating in 1885 the power of
this method in scientifically understanding human behavior, including
I might pointedly add, the study of human perception:
We all knew of what this method consists: an attempt is made to
keep constant the mass of conditions which have proven them-
selves causally connected with a certain result; one of these con-
ditions is isolated from the rest and varied in a way that can be
numerically described; then the accompanying change on the
side of the effect is ascertained by measurement or computation.
14 Manuscript received May 3, 1976; revised June 22, 1976.
15 J. L. Calkins is with the Department of Psychology and Sociol-
ogy, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104.
16 H. Ebbinghaus, Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psy-
chology. New York: Dover Publications, 1964 (original: 1885).
The simplest and most unambiguous experiments, therefore, are
those employing but a single IV and a single DV, and, in the funda-
mental situation in which an effort is being made to demonstrate the
sheer existence of a phenomenon (as in the present study, without in-
quiring further into its composition and contingencies), the two basic
values or levels or variates of the IV may be simply designated the
"experimental" (i.e., the factor appears-operationally defined-in some
amount) and "control" condition (i.e., the factor actually empirically
appears as a "zero" level, something on the order of a "placebo" con-
dition in a drug study).
Unfortunately, in the present study, the basic procedure described
was carried out with all the subjects (six in number for Section III
studies through subsection "D," two more in subsection "E," and five
more in subsection "F"; we limit our critique to the more detailed
accounts given in subsections A-D rather than the very eketchy mate-
rial in subsections E and F, although all these studies used essentially
the same procedure and varies mainly on the basis of subject char-
acteristics). That is, all the subjects were administered, as it were, the
same basic treatment condition, and were thus all part of the same
"clairvoyant" or "remote-viewing" group, consisting essentially in the
S's making an effort to somehow envision a remote target. There did
not appear to be, therefore, any variations of this critical factor, as
Ebbinghaus and experimental logic requires.
Actually, all we know of the instructions to the S, so critical in
determining the operational definition of this variable (not to mention
making the study replicable!) is that the "remote-viewing subject was
asked to describe his impressions of the target site into a tape recorder
and to make any drawings he thought appropriate (p. 335)," since the
authors do not give us the actual instructions.
Unfortunately, there are also fundamental problems in the very def-
inition of the DV, at the heart of which is confusion over the nature
of the so-called "target." Specifically, the judge for a given S's perfor-
mance for a given "target" was successively driven to each geographical
location previously visited by the peripetetic E"s. Since we do not
know precisely what aspects of the geographical location constituted a
"target" in the original "experiment" when the demarcation team was
present, and since it is even more ambiguous now what the judge was
viewing, as well as what he was supposed to be looking at while he re-
viewed the S's packages of 9 descriptions, we seem in this procedure,
therefore, to actually be dealing with at least three recognizably distinct
categories of "targets": one is constituted by the perceptions of the
demarcation team; a second by the perceptions of the judges; and a
third by direct physical aspects of some geographical location (photo-
graphs are used in the report and labelled "target" to further compli-
cate target specification-e.g., their Fig. 4). It is difficult to evaluate
how potentially dissimilar these various "targets" were in the absence
of clarifying and detailed accounts of the specific instructions to the
teams and to the judge. Since these judgements define the essence of
a "hit," the fundamental datum of the DV in this report, we are led
logically to doubt the validity of this DV and suspect it is also very un-
reliable (no reliability measures are presented to reassure us on this
point).
To summarize our concerns with the DV, we may say, first, it ap-
pears to need considerable specification, a detailed operational defini-
tion; second, its reliability should be ascertained, and doubt that it is
inherently very unreliable removed; third, it should be used for deter-
mining experimental condition ("clairvoyance") hit rates in the match-
ing task, as well as for appropriate control conditions' (e.g., "No clair-
voyance," "No clairvoyance and no demarcation team," and so on) hit
rates, so that an appropriate statistic based on the net differences in
"hit rates" could be tested for the degree to which this difference mea-
sure is statistically significant.
This latter point reminds us to comment on the essential experi-
mental invalidity of this parapsychological tactic of comparing their
so-called "experimental data" to some hypothetical "chance" level in
the absence of experimental empirical control conditions. This point is
perhaps most clearly illustrated in the psychokinetic ("mind over mat-
ter") literature. In those studies, classically championed by Rhine some
years age 17 (e.g., 1947), and reviewed up to 1962 in an excellent re-
port by Girden18, a tumbler might toss out onto a table some 600 dice;
the S being evluated for his alleged "psychic" skills makes some effort
to mentally or "psychically" influence eachi die and have, say, as many
5's turn up as he can. A tabulation is made, and it is found that, say,
17 J. B. Rhine, The Reach of the Mind. New York : W. Sloane Asso-
ciates, 1966.
18 E. Girden, A Review of Psychokinesis (PK), Psychol. Bull., vol.
59, pp. 353-388, 1962.
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235 5's. have indeed turned up-a startling result, indeed, especially
when it is considered that only 100 should have so turned up by
"chance," as dictated by purely theoretical (not experimental) con-
siderations. The problem with this interpretation is the same as that in
the present "remote-viewing" study. This "chance level" is a theoreti-
cal, mathematical abstract model of the behavior of 600 ideal dice, not
necessarily related to the dice actually being used in the study at all,
not to mention to the procedures and physical conditions operating in
actually using and tossing them. An empirical control condition is
necessary to obtain this standard for comparison, one representing the
behavior of actual, physically existent and manipulated concrete dice
used in the study and accounting for such potentially confounding vari-
ables influencing the throw such as non-horizontal tables, leaded dice,
etc. This control condition would exactly duplicate the experimental
condition, save only for the omission of some critical factor under
study in the experiment-such as psychokinesis, or, in the present in-
stance, "remote viewing." We must run a non-PK or nonremote view-
ing condition!
How could this be accomplished? For objective experimental pur-
poses, "remote viewing" may be operationally defined either by spec-
ifying instructions to a subject concerning his potential task of envision-
ing, distant objects, or by controlling the very existence of a target to
be seen "remotely" (or any other way for that matter). Therefore,
each of these procedural details can serve as an IV in a well-controlled
2-factor design. For the "target" IV, we would seem to need only the
two basic levels of this IV, namely, a condition in which a remote tar-
get is available for alledged "remote viewing," hypothetically facilitated
in some inscrutable fashion by a "demarcation team" actively observing
the target according to explicit, replicable directions, and a condition
in which no such remote target or team exists. The former instance
would theoretically permit clairvoyance to operate (if it exists), since
one's reported imagery could be matched or compared to the actual
selected target; the latter control condition would not, since there
would be no selected target to see clairvoyantly or otherwise.
Furthermore, on the basis of an operational definition of "remote-
viewing" in terms of the instructions to S establishing his remote-
viewing task (our second IV), we can proceed to require him to draw
pictures or verbally describe anything he can imagine, but in the experi-
mental condition further telling him to attempt to view a remote target.
Procedurally, this would mean we begin by creating a large pool of
nearby geographical sites to function as potential "targets" (this is an
attempt to perserve the authors' procedures wherever feasible, since it
would hardly otherwise be very advisable to use such complex stimuli
as these targets in preference to simpler, ideally quantifiable "targets"),
and then randomly assign targets to the 4 cells of our 2 by 2 factorial
experimental design until, say, each cell as five (5) targets.
As for the sequence to be followed in actually running S's through
these different treatment combinations, a simple randomized arrange-
ment would suffice. Later, the judge can in random sequence consider
one cell of descriptions and targets after the other, until all four cells
have been "matched," where naturally the judge is not informed of the
treatment combination condition. Hit rates are determined, for ex-
ample, and then appropriate statistical tests for simple effects, main ef-
fects and possible interactions determined.
It may be true, as the parapsychologists claim, that ESP is real and
represents a great latent power of the human mind, one day to emerge
in full recognition by science as another momentous step in the evolu-
tion of man and his mind; but its truth remains to be demonstrated
through use of the experimental method, and until it is, in the same
way as Ohm's Law or Pavlov's conditioned reflex paradigm, parapsy-
chologists ought not consider psychologists and other scientists and
engineers calcified conservatives blindly refusing to see the obvious
"fact" that ESP, etc., exists, because the parapsychologists themselves,
just as in the present study, scem to virtually intentionally avoid using
the only techniques which in the long run will prove persuasive to the
scientific community, and those are objective experimental procedures,
even through it may appear such a convincing logic exists by virtue of
the use of scientific jargon, description of scientific equipment, mathe-
matical and information theory models, and so on.
Indeed, the perseverance of belief in ESP, and the reinforcement it
does and will continue to receive from such publications as evaluated
in this present critique, indicates to this writer that we are dealing more
with a social movement or cult than with a future discipline in empiri-
cal science as Hoffer might put it (1964).19
19 E. Hoffer, The True Believer. New York: New American Li-
brary, 1964 (original: 1951).
Replies20 by Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ21
To begin, we appreciate the remarks by McConnell, and we are
grateful to him for his offer to make available annotated bibliographies
on paranormal studies, including the sociological issues. As researchers
publishing in the field, we learned early that sociological factors appear
to play an especially significant role in this field, both in carrying out
research and in disseminating results.22
In response to the comments of Harris, we too have considered the
possibility that an alternative explanation for apparent successful pre-
cognition in our experiment could involve a concatenation of telepathy,
remote viewing, and remote psychokinesis. Although there is no evi-
dence to rule out such a possibility, we prefer the simpler explanation
as a working hypothesis. The idea of subject-caused paranormal events
leading to apparent precognition, although within the realm of pos-
sibility, would seem to be less viable, if one is to give credence to any
of the more dramatic cases in the anecdotal literature (disaster predic-
tion, etc.). Harris' comment that the "advanced potential" hypothesis
may be too parochial is well taken. We cited it only as a possibility that
exists within the present scientific framework, and which we think
should be examined before ad hoc theories are introduced.
However, the objection to advanced potentials raised by Musès (pre-
cognitive "advantage" restricted to one nanosecond-per-foot) is over-
come if one considers not just plane waves propagating at the velocity
of light, but rather traveling-wave interferograms (i.e., slowly moving
standing wave patterns). In this case information propagates at the
velocity of the interference pattern in the wake of the passing waves,
rather than at the velocity of the waves themselves. The group velocity
of a signal would under these conditions be slower than the phase veloc-
· ity c, thus allowing for a longer precognition time interval.23 We wish
to emphasize again that we are not putting this forward as the explana-
tion for precognition, but rather only as an example that modern
theory does not absolutely forbid such modeling, as shown in our
Stratton reference.24 In passing, one of the authors (HP) does ac-
knowledge the conversation on this topic referred to by Dr. Muses, but
must point out that the original source of this concept in our work lies
in an earlier paper published by one of the authors (RT). 25
With regard to the Warcollier reference pointed out by Muses, we
are familiar with Warcollier's work in remote picture drawing, 26 which
is similar to the more easily available material in the book by Upton
Sinclair (with preface by Einstein), Mental Radio;27 we are not famil-
iar, however, with any work by Warcollier in our format (remote view-
ing of natural targets). For the latter a good early reference we have
come across since publication of our paper is a chapter by Sir Oliver
Lodge in An Outline of Science, 28
Deutsch's first argument against ESP ("with our present-day sophis-
ticated equipment, we cannot detect any forces beyond the four funda-
mental forces of physics ... ") indicates that, at least with regard to our
paper, he has missed one of our major points-that it is not necessary
to go outside of present-day physics in order to begin to model so-
called paranormal perception. His comments on brain functioning,
neuronal firing, and the uncertainty principle, although not directed
toward our paper per se, nonetheless inspire us to point out that the
leading neurophysiologists of our time have taken a position directly
counter to that of Deutsch. For example, the eminent neurophysiolo-
gist, John C. Eccles, in discussing a neurophysiological hypothesis of
will in his book Facing Reality, comments at length on the possibility
of neuronal firing patterns being controlled by quantum processes at
the level of the uncertainty principle.29 Be that as it may, it would
20 Manuscript received June 30, 1976.
21 The authors are with the Electronics and Bioengineering Labo-
ratory, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, CA 94025.
22 Bicentennial Conference on America in the Information Age,
sponsored by the American Society for Information Science; Panel on
"Science and unexplained phenomena," Washington, D.C., Apr. 12-14,
1976
23 H. E. Puthoff and R. Targ, "Psychic research and modern phys-
ics," in E. D. Mitchell's Psychic Exploration -- A Challenge to Science, J.
White, Ed., New York: Putnam's 1974, ch, 22.
24 J. A. Stratton, Electromagnetic Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1941.
25 R. Targ, "Precognition and everyday life: A physical model," in
Proc. 15th Int. Conf. Parapsychology (Amsterdam, The Netherlands),
Aug. 1972.
16 R. Warcollier, Mind-to-Mind, New York: Creative Age Press,
1948.
27 U. Sinclair, Mental Radio. New York: Collier Books, 1971.
1 8 Sir Oliver Lodge, "Psychic science," in The Outline of Science,
J. A. Thompson, Ed. New York: Putnam's, 1922.
29 J. C. Eccles, Facing Reality, New York: Springer-Verlag, 1970,
ch. 8.
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appear to us that the "free-will-versus-determinism" issue is separate
from and irrelevant to the ESP issue, since even in a deterministic uni-
verse there is no strong argument against the occurrence of a com-
pletely predetermined event that, because of its characteristics, would
be considered "paranormal."
With regard to Deutsch's trust in the Martin Gardner attempt to
"expose the weaknesses" of our research with a random number gener-
ator, such trust is misplaced. Our rebuttal to Gardner points out that
Gardner's major criticism of our experiments was based on his miscon-
ception of the manner in which data were collected by an automated
system.30
In Calkins' letter we find a detailed presentation of the elements of
an experiment, definitions of independent and dependent variables
(IV's and DV's); a detailed description of a particular factorial experi-
mental design standardly used in certain specialized studies (e.g., drug/
placebo treatment of animals), and so on; all of which, taken in proper
context, we have no quarrel with. Unfortunately, intertwined with this
discourse is the claim that since our experimental design differs from
the paradigm he advocates, we have failed to follow accepted method-
ology (as he narrowly interprets it) in experimental psychology. He
would have the reader believe that, as a consequence, our experimental
and control conditions, and our IV's and DV's were ill-defined, and per-
force our results necessarily ambiguous. Although on the surface his
criticism might appear to be both sophisticated and substantive, careful
examination of his remarks point by point reveals a basic misinterpre-
tation of our experiment; and also a basic misunderstanding of the roles
that different experimental paradigms play in eliciting data of interest
in complex and subtle behavioral experimentation. As a result we find
his evaluation inaccurate and his conclusions invalid.
To handle the general argument first, obviously there is no single
research strategy or experimental design that can be applied in cook-
book fashion to all research issues. The designs available within the
arsenal of experimental psychologists range from naturalistic observa-
tions, through systematic assessment with controlled stimuli, and fi-
nally to experimental manipulation.31 The key distinctions among
the strategies involve the degree of experimental control that is exer-
cised, and the amount of artificiality or bias that is introduced. Each
strategy has an appropriate function, application, strength, and short-
coming, and, as Scott and Wertheimer point out, "any particular pro-
ject may well combine features of each strategy."31
At an early stage of research, the investigator must find procedures
that will minimize ambiguity by controlling unwanted influences, while
avoiding the rigidity, artificiality, masking, and biasing effects that pre-
mature overrefinement of procedures might introduce. It would be in
our opinion premature and imprudent, for example, during the initial
stages of an investigation when much remains unknown about the
mechanisms and factors involved, to follow Calkins' suggestion to
specify precisely on which stimuli within a target area a subject or
judge is to concentrate. As Scott and Wertheimer caution, "experi-
mental manipulation may provide such refined control over the situa-
tion in which a relationship is established that the generality of the
results becomes questionable. Precision of control is not the only con-
sideration in designing a research project. Generality and applicability
of the conclusions are others ... The problem facing the investigator is
to find an appropriate compromise that will afford control over certain
unwanted influences, while at the same time adequately representing
the complex interplay of circumstances he is trying to find out about."
In the design of our remote-viewing protocol, we took into account
the advice of Anderson as given in his discussion of what he calls a
"natural experiment."32 "In the early stages of research . . . it is good
strategy to observe the operations of variables in their natural settings
to obtain some estimate of the relative importance of these variables."
We therefore incorporated into our overall strategy certain elements of
a "natural experiment" such as the use of targets defined by the "nat-
ural" process of site visitation by a demarcation team with unspecified
instructions, and the use of "free-response" questioning.
In keeping with accepted methodology in experimental psychology
we emphasized rigid control over variables that might have introduced
bias into our results. For instance, double-blind protocol was used in
all procedures involving the generation and presentation of the stimuli
30R. Targ and H. Puthoff, Letters, Scientific American, vol. 234,
Jan, 1976.
31 W. A. Scott and M. Wertheimer, Introduction to Psychological
Research. New York: Wiley, 1962, pp. 69-77.
32 B. F. Anderson, The Psychology Experiment. An Introduction to
the Scientific Method, 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing
Co., 1971. pp. 36-41.
(target site visitations by demarcation team); the analysis of responses
(S-generated transcripts and drawings) was carried out by a judge blind
as to the correct stimulus-response pairs. A series of independent
variables (IV's) that Calkins chooses to ignore (target-site characteristics
such as distance, elevation, presence or absence of water, etc.) were
manipulated by random selection, and a well-defined DV was obtained
from the judged accuracy of S's oral and graphic description of target
location as represented by rank-order number. Among other things the
precise time of stimulus presentation was controlled and S's were uni-
formly instructed to provide a detailed description, by word and draw-
ing, of their impression of the target area. In short, precise experi-
mental control was used where appropriate to eliminate ambiguous
conditions, independent variables were systematically manipulated and
presented under suitably controlled conditions, and measurement was
made of the effects of the changed stimuli. Thus, the vital elements of
an experiment as defined in experimental psychology were present.
(For definitions of the elements of an experiment, see footnotes.31-37)
There is insufficient space to answer in detail each of the specific
criticisms made in Calkin's comments (for example, the effort to in-
validate our statistical procedure by erroneous extrapolation of the
biased-die fallacy). However, a few important points need to be made.
1) Calkins suggests that the two-factor design he advocates is a
superior experimental design, in part because of the introduction of
control conditions such as: (i) there is an experimental target demar-
cated by the target team as in our usual experimental condition, but S
is told to think of "anything he can imagine" (his "do-not-remote-
view" condition), and (ii) there is no target, but S is asked to carry out
a remote viewing anyway. In the first case S's might imagine remote
scenes, might focus on close relatives or friends, doodle or simply think
of anything at random. It is not at all clear that a meaningful compari-
son can be made between the output of this exercise and a genuine ef-
fort at remote viewing. This would be similar to comparing apples
with an entire fruit stand. For case (ii) it is not clear how the absence
of a target would be generated. How, for example, does one effectively
send a target team "nowhere"? If there is a target team, the members
must be somewhere, and thereby would provide some basis for remote
viewing. (Our best effort in this direction [p. 340, Table IV, 2nd target
site] was to lock the target team up in a shielded room, instead of send-
ing them out to an outdoor target.) If, on the other hand, there is no
designated target team, this situation is so dissimilar to the putative
remote-viewing situation under study that S responses would be open
to serious question with regard to the basis for making meaningful
comparisons. In sum, Professor Calkins has not shown how his ap-
proach is better, if indeed it is as acceptable as that which was used.
It would seem, rather, that the recommended approach would intro-
duce more ambiguity into the experimental design than it would re-
solve, making the results extremely difficult to interpret. One must
not abjure common sense in an effort to follow a particular favorite
procedure which might recommend itself theoretically.
2) Perhaps the most valid criticism in Calkins' comments, center on
our not detailing information about the reliability of the judging pro-
cess. Although the data are contained within the paper, clarification is
in order.
As indicated in Sections A and B, pp. 335-338, two judging proce-
dures were used. In the first, panels of 5 independent judges analyzed
the first and second experiments. From this one could obtain the re-
liability of rankings by several judges (inter-rater agreement) as mea-
sured by the coefficient of concordance W. However, in the present
study a judgment consisted of the matching of descriptive transcripts
and drawings to actual sites, and therefore the accuracy of matching
provides an empirical measure of judge reliability. The best judge ob-
tained seven matches out of nine cases in the first experiment, five out
of nine in the second, setting at least an empirical standard for quality
of judging. This procedure amounted to a pre-testing of potential
judge reliability. A sixth judge was then obtained who independently
rank-order judged the same two experiments. Since he also indepen-
33 H. B. English and A. C. English, A Comprehensive Dictionary of
Psychological and Psychoanalytic Terms. New York: Mckay, 1958.
34 B. J. Underwood, Experimental Psychology, 2nd ed. New York:
Appleton Century Crofts, 1966.
35 D. T. Campbell and J. C. Stanley, Experimental and Quasi-Experi-
mental Designs for Research, Chicago, IL: Rand McNally, 1963.
36 G. McCain and E. M. Segal, The Game of Science, Belmont, CA:
Brooks/Cole 1969.
37 A. Chapanis, Research Techniques in Human Engineering. Balti-
more, MD: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1959.
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dently obtained the same 7 and 5 direct matches as the best judge, we
at least had a measure that indicated that with regard to the data gener-
ated in our first two experiments, the better judges were in accord,
indicating a high degree of reliability, inter- and intra-judge. This sixth
judge was therefore used for all the subsequent judging in the paper,
and thus the rank-order judging of all the experiments in the paper was
carried out by a single judge whose degree of reliability was estimated
on the basis of a comparison with the results of judging panels. The
authors do recognize, however, that the analysis of free-response mate-
rial is difficult at best and further work is being pursued in the hope
that subjective judging procedures can be replaced altogether by a more
quantified form of content analysis.
With regard to Calkins' closing remarks on cultism versus empirical
science, it is our understanding that the key distinction between the
two is that cultism consists of belief, in the absence of observation or
experimentation, whereas those who follow the emirical method can be
found in the laboratory formulating hypotheses and designing and car-
rying out experiments. It would appear to us that it is those who carry
out experiments and report results (see other replication studies, this
issue), rather than many of their critics, who are true to the canons of
empirical science.
Preliminary Experiments in Group "Remote Viewing"
THOMAS W. WHITSON, DAVID N. BOGART, JOHN PALMER,
AND CHARLES T. TART
Abstract-In preliminary research designed to test the "remote view-
ing" paradigm of Puthoff and Targ, two university art classes drew their
impressions of an unknown, randomly determined location. Based on
the drawings, independent judges attempted to select the correct loca-
tions from among ten slides. The results (P = 0.03), although not con-
clusive, were encouraging.
The experimental findings of Harold Puthoff and Russell Targ at
Stanford Research Institute (SRI) suggest that it is possible to obtain
descriptive information about remote locations through an unidentified
perceptual channel. Here we report two preliminary experiments per-
formed at the University of California, Davis, to check on the validity
of "remote viewing."
We wanted to test the hypothesis that "remote viewing" of natural
objects may be a latent and widely distributed ability. We used stu-
dents in a university art course as percipients. None of them were
known to possess extraordinary psychic abilities and none reported hav-
ing prior experience in describing unknown remote locations. The per-
cipients were practiced art students quite willing to draw and describe
their visual images.
Unlike the experiments at SRI, this study was a group experiment,
i.e., all percipients present simultaneously. The percipients produced
their drawings individually, with no discussion between one another.
For the first experiment, thirty target locations were selected by the
experimenters, all within ten minutes driving time from the Davis
campus. Of these thirty, ten locations clearly differentiated from each
other by visual criteria were chosen as the target pool. A few examples
of the target pool are: a palm tree, a Hammond organ, a bike underpass
tunnel, and a gravestone statue of an angel. A color slide of each site
was scaled in an envelope together with traveling instructions from the
university to the location pictured. Before meeting with the class, E1
(Whitson) randomized the envelopes while E2 (Bogart) was not present.
The experimenters decided to introduce the nature of the experiment
at the beginning of the class and then carry out the procedures after the
percipients had been drawing for two hours. We felt that the percip-
ients' visual imagery would be more activated at this time than at the
beginning of class.
On arriving, the experimenters introduced themselves and the experi-
ment to the percipients. They described the studies performed at SRI
and emphasized that the earlier experiments suggested "remote view-
ing" might be a widely distributed perceptual ability. They then in-
formed the percipients of the procedures that were to be followed two
hours later, i.e., that E2 would travel to a remote location and view the
site for fifteen minutes. Upon leaving, E 2 selected one of the envelopes
Manuscript received March 25, 1976.
The authors are with the Department of Psychology, University of
California, Davis, CA 95616.
TABLE I
1st
2nd
Total
ANGEL
1
3
4
BANJO
4
5
BEAN POLE
5
BIKES
3
6
BIKE TUNNEL*
5
6
11
DIRT MOUNDS
34
3
4
0
0
4
ORGAN
3
2
5
PALM TREE
1
3
4
TRACTOR
3
1
4
Number of Drawings - 27
*ACTUAL TARGET SITE
1 2nd choice not given
TABLE II
1st
2nd
Total
ANGEL
0
0
0
BANJO
6
BEAN POLE
1
3
BIKES*
3
1
4
BIKE TUNNEL
1
0
0
1
DIRT MOUNDS
0
2
2
N
LOGS
2
1
3
ORGAN
4
CO
8
PALM TREE
0
0
0
TRACTOR
0
1
1
Number of Drawings - 14
*ACTUAL TARGET SITE
from the randomized target pool, without telling E1 what it was, and
traveled to the chosen site. El returned to the art class to be present
while the percipients attempted to visualize the remote location that
E2 was viewing. The experimenters had synchronized the fifteen minute
interval so that E2 and the percipients were "viewing" at the same time.
After the percipients had attempted "remote viewing," they were asked
by El to produce a drawing of the images that corresponded to the re-
mote site, E1 then collected the drawings and told the percipients the
results would be discussed at a later class meeting.
E2 returned to a designated room, removed the slides from the enve-
lopes, and randomized them a second time with target slide included.
El was not present at the time the target site envelope was selected or
rerandomized. El then proceeded with the method of evaluation, but
being ignorant of the target identity he could not bias the results.
The judge for the first experiment was an employee of the U.C. Davis
art department. He was asked to match a first and second choice of the
ten possible target slides to each drawing. At the time of the judging,
he was not aware that it was an ESP experiment. Using an overhead
projector, the ten slides were projected on a screen simultaneously.
The judge could then readily distinguish the differences in each location
and make the decision for each drawing. After the judging E2 revealed
the target site to everyone concerned.
The results of the judging were as follows (Table I), with first and
second choices counted as hits, a procedure decided upon before the
analysis.
Although we were not able to apply a formal statistical test to this
single session, we nevertheless were impressed that the correct target
received almost twice as many matches as the next most frequently
chosen slide (11 versus 6). On the other hand, we were aware that if,
by chance alone, the selected remote location happened to meet a pre-
dominant drawing bias in the percipients, the results would be arti-
factually inflated. Therefore we conducted a second remote viewing
experiment, with mixed motivation. Partly we wanted to see if we
could again obtain positive results, partly we wanted to sce if images
of tunnels (the target in Experiment One) occurred frequently when it
was not the target.
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2
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5
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PROCEEDINGS LETTERS
Experiment Two used essentially the same procedure as Experiment
One except that a new art class and a new judge, a graduate student in
the art department, were used. The bike tunnel was precluded as a pos-
sible target, although it was included in the judging pool. Finally, E1
noted before the data were analyzed that this class seemed less inter-
ested and involved in the experiment than did the first class. Table II
gives the results.
Tunnel-like images that would be matched with the slide of the bike
tunnel were quite rare, so we consider the possibility of artifactual in-
flation of the results of Experiment One to be unlikely. The results of
the second experiment were not as impressive as those of the first al-
though the target slide did receive the third highest number of matches
out of ten. Of all possible target pairs in both sessions combined, the
total number of matches assigned to the actual target pair was the third
highest of the 90 possible pairs. This is associated with a one-tailed
probability of 0.033.
These initial experimental excursions into the investigation of "re-
mote viewing" offer modest support to Puthoff and Targ's results.
Given the theoretical significance of the phenomenon, we intend to do
further studies.
Remote Viewing Experiments Through Computer
Conferencing
JACQUES VALLEE, ARTHUR C. HASTINGS, AND
GERALD ASKEVOLD
Abstract-A series of remote viewing experiments were run with 12
participants who communicated through a computer conferencing net-
work. These participants, who were located in various regions of the
United States and Canada, used portable terminals in their homes and
offices to provide typed descriptions of 10 mineral samples. These
samples were divided into an open series and a double-blind series. A
panel of five judges was asked to match the remote viewing descriptions
against the mineral samples by a percentage scoring system. The cor-
rect target sample was correctly identified in 8 out of 33 cases; this
represents more than double the pure chance expectation. Two experi-
enced users provided 20 transcripts for which the probability of achiev-
ing the observed distribution of the percentage score by chance was
0.04.
These results confirm earlier reports of successful remote viewing ex-
periments while extending them to cases in which participants were
thousands of miles away from each other and in which the targets were
mineral samples of potential economic significance, with control of
communications provided by a computer network.
In a recent article,1 Puthoff and Targ have stated the case for the
existence in humans of the ability to perceive objects and scenes at a
distance through an apparently unknown information channel. In this
note, we report a series of experiments that appear to confirm their
work while extending it to cases in which the participants were several
thousand miles away from each other, with control of sensory condi-
tions automatically and unobtrusively provided by the medium of
communication, and in which the targets were mineral samples of po-
tential economic significance.
The experiments were conducted via a computer teleconferencing sys-
tem, which has been described elsewhere.2 This system is implemented
on a computer network and allows each participant to type comments
at any time. All comments are immediately printed by the computer
on the terminals of any participants who are currently logged in (or are
stored for later retrieval). Twelve persons, in New York, Florida, Que-
bec, and California, were supplied with computer terminals in their
homes or offices. The conference was sponsored by a communications
company, and participants made their personal time available for the
project on a voluntary basis.
Manuscript received May 5, 1976.
The authors are with the Institute for the Future, Menlo Park, CA
94025.
' H. E. Puthoff and R. Targ, "A Perceptual channel for information
transfer over kilometer distances: Historical perspectives and recent re-
search," Proc. IEEE, vol. 64, no. 3, Mar. 1976.
See, in particular, the articles "Network conferencing," Datamation,
May 1974, and "The Computer conference, An altered state of com-
munication?," The Futurist, June 1975.
REMOTE DESCRIPTION
PANEL SELECTION AND SCORES
AMONG THE 10 POSSIBLE TARGETS
ACTUAL
TARGET
WAS :
Open/
Blind
Author
Best
Match
2nd
Match
3rd
Match
4th
Match
5th
Match
1
Open
I.S.
J (134)
F
(60)
(50)
G (44)
D (30)
C
2
Open
A.H.
A ( 100)
1
(60)
F (52)
H (50)
€ (45)
C
3
Blind
I.S.
(212)
G
(50)
C (10)
D (10)
A (10)
F
4
Open
I.S.
J (100)
E
(76)
₣ (55)
K (30)
A (10)
G
5
Blind
A.H.
K
(70)
H
(62)
₲ (60)
G (80)
n
8
Blind
I.s.
i (210)
(40)
9
Open
A.H.
H (150)
F
(70)
J (50)
C (20)
E (48)
C (30)
1
11
Open
R. B.
(0)(208)
D
(30)
C (20)
H (20)
12
Open
A.H.
F
(45)
(E) (20)
D (17)
E
13
Open
R.B.
F (188)
14
Blind
R.8.
K (110)
0 (56)
J (30)
H
15
Blind
A.H.
A (180)
D (10)
F (10)
H
16
Blind
I.S.
H(166)
17
Open
R. 8.
D (100)
F (90)
18
Open
1.5.
(F)(246)
D (120)
L (20)
F
19
Open
I.S.
G (104)
C (100)
20
Open
A.H.
: (30)
K (20)
1(84)
0 16
21
Open
R.B.
(56)
1
(50)
D (30)
A (10)
c (10))
J
22
Blind
R.B.
H
(62)
23
A.H.
Đ
(52)
G
(10)
24
Blind
J.B.
(40)
D
(14)
J (10)
K
25
Open
R. B.
0 (72)
(10)
26
Open
A. V.
(80)
(25)
F (5)
< (2)
D
28
Open
R. B.
b (126)
H
29
Open
A.H.
0 (222)
F
(10)
H (22)
A (10)
1 (10)
H
31
Blind
A.H.
H (32)
(30)
G (10)
1
(6)
A
32
Blind
R. B.
C (130)
G (124)
33
Open
R. B.
1
(60)
D
(16)
J (15)
K (6)
A
Fig. 1. Total panel results for each remote description (correct matches
are circled).
The primary purpose of the experiments was to test "remote viewing"
under the altered state of communication enabled by computer
teleconferencing-in which participants are individually isolated, com-
municating with each other only in the printed mode, but often in real
time. We further wished to confirm that the use of the teleconferenc-
ing system would supply accurate and unobtrusive recording of the data
and would prevent collusion or subliminal cuing to a degree not found
in most parapsychological experiments.
Over the period of 14 June to 8 July 1975, the participants discussed
current issues in psychic research. The formal experiments lasted five
days, from 29 June to 3 July, and were conducted as follows: Ten
mineral samples selected from geological collections were assigned a
label and enclosed in sealed envelopes. The specimens were the rare
mineral bastnosite, a vein filling of galena and quartz, opal, gold ore,
halite, cinnabar, magnetite, realgar, barite, and cobaltite. The partici-
pants were told only that the targets were mineral samples from North
America. Five of the samples were enclosed in larger envelopes and
randomly labeled "Sunday" through "Thursday" to compose a
"double-blind" pool. The other samples constituted an "open" pool.
Each day at 7:30 a.m. and 7:30 p.m. Pacific Daylight Time, a geolo-
gist sitting at his home terminal took one of the envelopes from the
open pool, extracted the sample, and held it in his hand. Anyone
logged into the conference at that time could volunteer a remote view-
ing description. Such descriptions were recorded and printed by the
computer with a date and time stamp. After all descriptions were in,
the geologist entered a brief description of the specimen to provide
feedback for the participants. This sample was then removed from the
open pool.
Similarly, each morning the envelope for the day was taken from the
double blind pool and placed at a designated office location where it
was a target for remote viewing for eight hours. Anyone logging into
the conference during that time could type in a description of the
sample contained in that envelope. At the end of the day, the envelope
was taken to the geologist, who added the sample to the open pool. No
feedback was given for the double blind targets.
Upon completion of the experiments, we had obtained 33 descrip-
tions of the ten samples from six people. Thirteen of these descriptions
were under double blind conditions and 20 under open conditions.
Four specimens had been run under both conditions.
Inspection showed what appeared to be successful descriptions of
several samples, but in order to objectively evaluate the accuracy of the
remote viewing descriptions, we asked outside judges to match the 33
descriptions against the mineral samples. Five judges who had no prior
knowledge of the correct pairings (a sociologist, an editor, a physicist, a
secretary, and a librarian) were given transcripts of the descriptions
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6
Blind
R.B.
(284)
1
(10)
D
7
Blind
R. T.
A (205)
-
(90)
D
10
Open
I.s.
D (50)
J
(50)
K (50)
H
30
Open
J (58)
c
(30)
D
27
Open
A.H.
(55)
(5)
K
K
A
No.
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(without time, date, or author identification) and the geological speci-
mens. Their instructions were to assign one or more specimens to cach
description. We consider the method of judging to be a critical factor.
While Puthoff and Targ used a ranking system, we used a percentage
scoring system. Each specimen assigned to a given description was al-
lotted a percentage score which reflected the judge's certainty of the
"match." The total of 100 percent could be divided among any or
none of the specimens. We then totaled all five judges' assignments for
each description to find which specimens scored the highest for each
description. The results are shown in the accompanying table.
The corrrect target sample was assigned the highest score (that is,
"correctly" identified) in 8 out of 33 cases on the basis of the remote
viewing description. This frequency is more than double a pure chance
expectation of 3.3 and would occur less than once in 100 trials by
chance. For a more detailed analysis, which accounted for the distribu-
tion of percentages among several targets for each description, the per-
centage scores were computer processed with the Statistical Package
for the social sciences. A one-tailed T-test was used to determine the
probability that the assigned percentage scores for correct and incor-
rect targets were due to chance. For all 33 transcripts, the probability
of achieving the observed distribution of the percentage scores by
chance was 0.08. For transcripts provided by participants I. S. from
New York and R. B. from Orlando, Florida (9 and 11 transcripts, re-
spectively), the T-test indicated a 0.04 probability score.
Following are some descriptions of the target specimens taken from
the remote viewing transcripts:
Target F was halite, which is NaCl (salt). It consisted of two, al-
most transparent, intergrown crystals. Transcript #18 said,
"crystal, crystal ball, glass, crystal, clear crystal ... formed by
dripping and evaporation . . . acquired by mining but found quite
near surface ... Northern Nevada." (Actual origin was Southern
Nevada.) Transcript #17 referred to supersaturated salt solu-
tions, and Transcript #3 said, "white thing like a coral . . . will
crumble if treated hard . . . more than one part . . . it grew."
Target D contained blue-green and milky-white opal clusters in
a brown pyramidal silica rock. Transcript #25 said, in part,
"Why do I keep getting GREENS? I see a medium size green
wedge ... flecked with brown rock color ... I don't see a pure
green emerald crystal ... it is flecked and connected to a coarse
rock edging .. . It looks to me like it was poured, a heavy liquid
green plastic (the green becoming blue-green at the edges of the
sample), and if it is fractured it would be in one clean smooth
break of glassine purity."
About two-thirds of the transcripts contained descriptive elements
that corresponded with the correct target specimen, but often these
were mixed with noncorresponding elements, and it was not possible
to reduce the information to a coherent single identification. The char-
acteristics most often identified correctly were the color of the sample,
the shape, relative weight, presence of crystals, type of material (e.g.,
metallic), and geological formation process (e.g., volcanic). Attempts
to specify location were usually in error as were descriptions of the size
of the samples and their exact substance. We do not know if these pat-
terns are due to the participants or to the nature of the information
transfer process. We suggest that further studies should select targets
that are easily discriminated (i.e., widely different) along these "most
perceived" characteristics.
We were encouraged by these results. Accurate and significant re-
mote perception occurred under test conditions that placed the most
successful participants 2500 M away from the targets. Also of interest
is the result that the double blind conditions provided equally correct
descriptions, suggesting that the ability under study also functions on
information not known to others. The computer conference system
allowed control of the test conditions, with complete recording of all
messages among participants. .
The fact that several of the specimens were composite and contained
mixed materials made this an especially complex (though realistic) test
situation, perhaps more demanding than the conditions that prevailed
in the SRI studies, at least for non-geologists. Our results tend to vali-
date Puthoff and Targ's experiments and indicate that remote viewing
techniques are deserving of further attention.
The conference and experiments were made possible by Mr. A. Katz
of Deer Communications, Inc., San Francisco. We also express our
gratitude to Messrs. Hudson and Wilson for their assistance in carrying
out and analyzing the experiments. Our special thanks go to the five
judges: Ms. Amara, Ms. Chula, Dr. Johansen, Dr. Lipinski, and
Ms. Spangler.
Book Reviews
The following reviews were selected from those recently published in
various IEEE TRANSACTIONS and Group/ Society Newsletters. They are
reprinted here to make them conveniently available to the many readers
who otherwise might not have ready access to them. Each review is fol-
lowed by an identification of its original source.
Design of Systems and Circuits for Maximum Reliability or Maximum
Production Yield-P. W. Becker and F. Jensen (Lyngby, Denmark:
Polyteknisk Forlag, 1974, 347 pp., $16.00). Reviewed by Harold K.
Knudsen, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM.
The main thrust of this exceptional book is the development of
methods of computer-aided design which results in circuits and systems
of maximum drift reliability or maximum production yield. The book
has an excellent exposition. The authors express themselves with
candor and give a full and nonpedantic development of their material.
The material is presented at a level which assumes a modest knowledge
of probability theory (c.g., conditional probability, continuous density
functions, functions of random variables, etc.). This book would be
suitable for a graduate level course, or for self-study in computer-aided
design and reliability.
The main body of the text develops fundamental reliability concepts,
the formulation of suitable mathematical models, and optimization
methods. This material is applied in the design of example circuits of
reasonable complexity.
The reliability concepts which are defined and/or developed include:
the definition of the reliability function, properties of the reliability
function, combinational reliability, and system reliability as a function
of time; chapters on design and philosophy, the rule of preliminary
design in model formulation, feasible solutions, the development of a
mathematical model of yield or of drift reliability, and methods for
computing the probability of system or circuit success. The chapter
on optimization reviews methods for searching for unconstrained
maxima and for formulating performance indices which lead to feasible
solutions. Finally, circuit examples consisting of one-transistor and
three-transistor amplifiers are used to illustrate the methods which were
developed. The appendices provide valuable extensions to the text
materials. There is also an extensive bibliography.
This preliminary cdition, although excellent in exposition and con-
tent, does have some arcas in which it could be improved. There is no
concluding chapter as a summary of the methods developed and esti-
mates for the costs of applying these methods to more complex sys-
tems. A few exercises are scattered throughout the book; but these are
insufficient for self-instruction, or for a class, unless supplemented by
the instructor. Finally, the equations occasionally contain symbols
which are not adequately defined in the text (e.g., Pij on p. 46).
The above shortcomings in the preliminary edition detract very little
from the overall book which is an excellent tutorial presentation of the
techniques of reliability optimization in the design phase of circuits
and systems.
Reprinted from the IEEE Circuits and Systems Society Newsletter,
February 1976.
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PROCEEDINGS LETTERS
1259
dissertation, ETS. Ing Telecomunicación, Madrid, 1973.
[3] S. Yoshizawa, "Some properties of randomly connected networks
of neuron-like elements with refractory period," Kybernetik, vol.
16, pp. 173-182, 1974.
] S. Amari, "A method of statistical neurodynamics," Kybernetik,
vol. 14, pp. 201-215, 1974.
Comments on "A Perceptual Channel for Information
Transfer over Kilometer Distances: Historical
Perspective and Recent Research"
LEON D. HARMON
There are many ways in which to comment upon the above paper.1 I.
imagine that PROCEEDINGS readers will provide a fine variety of feed-
back. My own reaction, however, is very simple.
If one takes the trouble to categorize roughly the contents of this
ramble, the sequence looks like this:
Topic
Number of
Pages
1) Introduction
2) Informal anecdotal assertions
1.
3) Historical background
4) Main study: Introduction, procedures,
controls
5) Results, gratuitous editorial comments,
anecdotal procedure citation
54
6) Informal presentations and discussions
of further experiments
10
7) Analysis
12
8) Raw data transcript
1
9) Bibliography
13
The central issue in a deeply controversial and highly suspect topic
such as telepathy, clairvoyance, time reversal, etc., is whether one is
prepared to accept as true what is offered in evidence. Notice that in
the rough categorization of the article's contents, above, only three-
quarters of one page (p. 335) in a 26 page paper is concerned with the
critical issue of rigorous experimental protocols and controls. And
much of that slim section is cursory and anecdotal.
We can keep our eyes on the ball by examining solely the relevant
three paragraphs on page 335 of the Puthoff and Targ paper (par. 3,
4, 5). All the rest-background, anecdotes, drawings, discussion, and
other (less formal) experiments, delightful as they may be-can be set
aside while we peer closely at what must ultimately supply reasonable
satisfaction regarding credibility.
The signal-to-noise ratio of this article improves markedly when
26 pages of meander are replaced by three paragraphs of explicit rela-
tively formal description of experimental procedure.
We are told the following.
1) The experiment was double blind.
2) The "transmission" experimenters were given "target" locations
and proceeded to the target while the "reception" experimenter
was kept ignorant of the target ..
3) Experimenters were with the "transmitting" subject at all times
during the "transmission."
4) An experimenter was with the "receiving" subject at all times
during data taking.
The entire business now hinges on the reader's accepting on faith that
no information was transmitted conventionally at any time from, say,
the transmission experimenters to the receiving experimenter or to the
subject. But no controls are cited; no safeguards are described; no
neutral watchdogs are mentioned.
Manuscript received March 15, 1976.
The author is with the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case
Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106.
I H. E. Puthoff and R. Targ, Proc. IEEE, vol. 64, pp. 329-354, Mar.
1976.
Further, this was not a true double-blind experiment as claimed,
since at least one of the researchers had a priori knowledge of the pre-
sumed occult data. We are asked to believe that no conceivable com-
munication channel existed between "transmitter" and "receiver"
other than by some exotic attenuationless seemingly magical informa-
tion propagation.
I feel certain that your readers can conceive of many possible alter-
native conventional channels. Both electronics engineers and magicians,
for example, will be at no loss to suggest many.
It is comforting to know that the Editor and Reviewers of the
PROCEEDINGS recommended publication of this preposterous ma-
terial. At least they are open-minded-which is a good thing. But
then, too much open-mindedness is a hole in the head.
Reply2 by Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ3
We would like to comment on the points raised in Harmon's letter in
response to our article.
In his introductory remarks, Harmon makes a reference to "less for-
mal" experiments. It is important to state at the outset that there were
no such experiments. In every experimental series, from the Costa Rica
pilot study to the verification study with visiting government scientists,
and resolution study with technology targets, a rigid formal protocol
was followed. This required that the experimenter with the subject
always be kept ignorant of the chosen target and that the analysis
(judging) of the experiment be done in a blind fashion by an individual
who did not know which response was associated with which target.
Harmon suggests that the reader of our paper must accept on faith
that there was no conventional communication channel from the target
site to the subject, since "no controls are cited, no safeguards are de-
scribed, no neutral watchdogs are mentioned." In fact, if Harmon will
examine p. 335, he will find that the entire experiment had multiple
controls, safeguards, and watchdogs every step along the way.
With regard to control over target selection at the beginning of the
experiment:
Before the experimental series began, the Director of the In-
formation Science and Engineering Division, not otherwise
associated with the experiment, established the set of locations
as the target pool which remained known only to him. The
target locations were printed on cards sealed in envelopes and
kept in the SRI Division office safe. They were available only
with the personal assistance of the Division Director who issued
a single random-number selected target card that constituted
the traveling orders for that experiment . ... The experimenter
remaining with the subject at SRI was kept ignorant of both the
particular target and the target pool so as to eliminate the
possibility of cueing, overt or subliminal .
When it came to the departure of the target team, an experimenter
plus one to three "watchdogs" assigned by SRI management were
handed the travel orders, left SRI, got into an automobile, opened the
orders, and then proceeded to the site indicated. As stated in the
paper, "The target demarcation team, consisting of two to four SRI
experimenters, then proceeded by automobile directly to the target
without any communication with the subject or experimenter remain-
ing behind." We find it remarkable for Harmon to read that the target.
demarcation team consisted of two to four experimenters, and yet
argue that perhaps they were not vigilant with regard to the possibility
that one of their members might try to communicate back to the sub-
ject. In addition, numerous of these experiments were observed by
visiting government scientists, outside consultants, SRI management,
etc. The roles of the two main experimenters were often reversed as to
who remained with the subject and who accompanied the outbound
team. The composition of the outbound team was changed, and many
times did not include either of the main experimenters. In short, as
stated on p. 335:
At all times, we and others responsible for the overall program
took measures to prevent sensory leakage and subliminal cueing
and to prevent deception, whether intentional or unintentional.
To ensure evaluations independent of belief structures of both
experimenters and judges, all experiments were carried out under
a protocol ... in which target selection at the beginning of ex-
2 Manuscript received April 9, 1976.
3 H. E. Puthoff and R. Targ are with The Electronics and Bioengineer-
ing Laboratory, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, CA 94025.
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, A
periments and blind judging of results at the end of experiments
were handled independently of the researchers engaged in carry-
ing out the experiments.
Harmon goes on to comment that "this was not a true double-blind
experiment as claimed, since at least one of the researchers had a priori
knowledge of the presumed occult data." This is in error. Neither the
experimenter with the subject nor the judge who evaluated the data,
the two individuals in principle capable of affecting the outcome, had
any knowledge of the true correspondences, and thus the experiment
was double blind. The fact that experimenters sent to the target site
knew where they were is irrelevant, since they did not have any oppor-
tunity to interact with subjects or judges.
With regard to the mechanisms involved in remote viewing, Harmon
states, "We are asked to believe that no conceivable communication
channel existed between 'transmitter' and 'receiver' other than by some
exotic attenuationless seemingly magical information propagation."
We wish to indicate to Harmon that the two mechanisms discussed by
the authors, extremely low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic propaga-
tion and quantum correlation, though they may seem exotic and mag-
ical to him, are well understood phenomena in the engineering and
scientific community, both theoretically and experimentally.
Finally, as we indicated in some detail on pp. 340-343, the watchdog
aspect was carried to the extreme, by having visiting government scien-
tists who were interested in observing our experimental protocols be
subjects themselves in an effort to detect whether chicanery was in-
volved. In the process of trying to account for their own good results
on the basis of other than paranormal functioning, they expressed con-
cern that perhaps the experimenter might be cueing them subliminally.
This was countered by eliminating the inbound experimenter and hav-
ing the visitor remain alone in the lab throughout the duration of the
experiment. They then conjectured that perhaps after the experiment
they were being taken to a place that sounded like their description,
even though that may not have been the place where the outbound
experimenters had gone. This was countered by having the outbound
experimenters make a tape while at the site and turning it over to the
subject-critic at the same time that he turned over his own tape de-
scribing the remote scene. In such fashion every criticism was met.
Thus, although Harmon suggests that "both electronics engineers and
magicians" will be at no loss to suggest many possible alternative con-
ventional channels, we find that, to the contrary, both electronics
engineers and professional magicians, who have consulted on this
project have in fact not found any viable alternative to fault the SRI
experiments. We therefore consider it important to continue data
collection and to encourage others to do likewise.
Further Comments4 by Leon D. Harmon
I was delighted to see the nature of Puthoff and Targ's response to
my letter. The only rebuttal needed is to invite the reader to examine
the article and both letters with care and then to judge whether or not
my criticisms were responded to.
A similar example of nonresponsive obfuscation by these gentlemen
can be found on pages 6 and 8 of Scientific American for February
1976.
I tried on two separate occasions to get permission from them to visit
and see for myself, preferably with a neutral but hard-nosed observa-
tion team of my choice. The requests were met with point-blank re-
fual. Tch!
Further Reply5 by Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ
We agree with Harmon that it is very desirable that interested readers
examine with care the article and letters to which he refers, and come
to their own conclusions with regard to the points he raises.
We understand Harmon's desire to visit SRI to "see for himself" ex-
periments in progress. As we are sure Harmon can appreciate, he is one
of more than fifty who have made similar requests in the past year. We
have therefore out of necessity limited such observation to contract
monitors and their consultants, potential sponsors, and researchers in-
volved in serious attempts at replication of our work.
If Harmon is genuinely interested in determining whether the experi-
ment works as reported, we would suggest that he try the experiment
himself under his own conditions as many others have done. Such inde-
pendent observations are much to be preferred, if for no other reason
than on the issue that an experiment that is not replicable from lab to
lab would be more of an art than a science. However, as we have in-
dicated in our response to Harmon's first letter, it is the robustness and
independence of environment or subject that characterizes this particu-
lar experiment. Therefore, although a demonstration at SRI would be
satisfying to Mr. Harmon and to those who know and trust him, we
think it would be a mistake for the field. That kind of experiment is
basically to provide testimony, but science goes forward on the basis of
independent experimentation and replication, not testimony.
Adaptive Monopulse Beamforming
LLOYD J. GRIFFITHS
Abstract -A new receive-array adaptive beamformer configuration is
presented. The array output signal consists of the difference between a
conventionally weighted beam and an adaptive beam that is constrained
to have a spatial null in the direction of interest. Adaptation then pro-
vides minimum total array output power.
Adaptive receiving arrays have been extensively discussed in the
literature [1]-[4] and have been shown to provide significant interfer-
ence rejection properties. In most of these systems, the arrival direc-
tion and/or temporal properties of the signal of interest are assumed to
be known a priori. If the specification of these properties is inaccurate,
the actual desired signal may be treated as interference by the adaptive
beamformer and thus may be rejected to some degree by the processor.
For this reason, practical adaptive beamformers are generally operated
in parallel with a conventionally formed array output which has fixed
prespecified mainlobe and sidelobe characteristics. Comparisons be-
tween the adapted and conventional outputs can then be conducted to
ensure that the desired signal-to-noise and interference ratio is indeed
being enhanced by the adaptive beamformer.
The array processor suggested in this letter incorporates a conven-
tionally weighted beam as an integral part of the total beamforming
. structure, as depicted in Fig. 1. In this figure, Z is used to denote the
K-dimensional vector of received array-element signals and G is a fixed
prefilter, which ensures that the system is steered in the direction of
interest. Thus G is either a set of bulk time delays (for broad-band sys-
tems) or a network of phase shifters (for narrow-band arrays), which
ensures that the desired signal portion of the K-dimensional vector X is
in phase at all components. Equivalently, for a digital beamformer,
X(k) = s(k)1 + N(k)
(1)
where s(k) is the kth sample of the desired signal, 1 is a constant vector
of ones, and N(k) is the sampled vector of noise and interference terms.
The adapted beam output signal yA (k) is formed using a system of
tapped delay lines, one for each received component, as discussed in
[1]-[3]. For a system with L taps per delay line, YA(k) may be ex-
pressed as
YA(k) =
x1 (k -1) WAI(k)
(2)
L-1
I=0
where T denotes transpose and WAI(k) is the Ith column of delay-line
coefficients employed at the kth sampling instant. A conventional out-
put yo(k) is formed using a vector of fixed coefficients Wc, which are
applied to the input data after a suitable delay, corresponding to the
midpoint of the delay lines in the adaptive processor. Thus
yc(k) = XT(k - n) Wc
(3)
where n = (L - 1)/2 when L is odd and n = L/2 or (L/2) - 1 when L is
even.
4 Manuscript received April 15, 1976.
$ Manuscript received April 21, 1976.
Manuscript received January 19, 1976.
The author is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Univer-
sity of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80302.
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A PERCEPTUAL CHANNEL FOR INFORMATION TRANSFER OVER KILOMETER DISTANCES:
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND RECENT RESEARCH
H. E. Puthoff and R. Targ
Copyright @1976 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Printed in U.S.A. Annals No. 603PR004
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